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J. GANRY
Deputy-Director CIRAD-FLHOR (1)
FRANCE
This report was developed with the contributi
This report was developed with the contribution of
Rémy HUGON - Attaché à la Direction Scientifique
CIRAD-FLHOR (1)
(1) CIRAD-FLHOR, B.P. 5035, 34032 Montpellier Cedex, FRANCE
| 1. Introduction 2. Fruits 3. Vegetables | (This file: ganry1.html) |
| 4. Ornamentals
5. Viticulture 6. Medicinal and aromatic plants 7. Trends and discussions 8. Conclusion | (Next file: ganry2.html) |
Jacky GANRY Chairman of WG2
The objective of working group 2, "Current Status of Horticultural Research", is to determine the relative importance of the major research areas and to identify the present trends in horticultural research world-wide.
The scope of the task is to include horticulture Research & Development activities, means and output by disciplines, areas of the world, groups of crops and type of institutions.
Tplines, areas of the world, groups of crops and type of institutions.
This non-exhaustive multiple approach is aimed at focusing on the most important facts and trends without intending to present a detailed portrait of the situation.
Consequently, this report is constructed around two approaches :
A geographical approach, which intends to give a global but not complete overview of the current situation and trends in horticultural research at the international level. The presentation is done separately for fruits, vegetables, viticulture, aromatic and medicinal plants.
For each crop group, the presentation framework is similar : global picture, genetic resources, plant improvement, propagation and nursery, plant protection, crop production, post-harvest, economics and marketing.
A case study approach, based on some relevant examples of
- thematic activities
- networking activities and global programmes
The geographical approach has been based on a preliminary survey through existing or potential correspondents in several locations (countries or regions). Each of them was requested to write a "country report" written around "tentative guidelines" (including crop, themes and organizations) and a questionnaire as a support to the report (quantitative information on staff, human resources, budget, scientific production, ...).
In order to have the wit, scientific production, ...).
In order to have the widest world coverage, 170 letters were sent to 86 countries or regions. 70 positive responses were received (75% of contacts).
From the 63 useful reports already received (90% of expected reports and around 70% of first contacts),we have written a synthetisizing report which tries to give a global, although incomplete, overview of current horticultural research in these locations.
We have obtained a very good coverage for Asia (78% of preliminary contact), and for Africa and West Asia (74%), but a weak coverage in Latin America (46%). Information on Western and Eastern Europe (55%) is incomplete. In North America, while a good coverage was achieved in Canada, information on the USA is rather weak.
Information on the private sector is not very consistent (see WG3), due to the fact that it would require more time and effort to penetrate this sector.
In spite of "indicative guidelines for report", responses are very heterogeneous and there has been a strong reluctance to filling in the questionnaire. In addition in many cases, in developing countries and Eastern Europe countries, it is often difficult to get specific statistical data such as budget, organization, productivity, trained manpower, facilities assigned.
Even in industrialized countries, such as the USA, France..., any quantification of funding or staff for horticultural research is difficufunding or staff for horticultural research is difficult on one hand, in some cases, because of the numerous private and public agencies and industrial companies involved, and on the other hand due to the fact that budgeting and staffing are frequently done across commodity lines, so that funding for agronomic and horticultural crops may be mixed. Therefore, it is difficult to identify funds especially dedicated and earmarked for "Horticultural research".
Nevertheless, it is possible to bring out some general highlights and trends from this first survey, based on "declarations" from country representatives and deducted from an analysis of "hard data" we have received. As previoulsly stated, we couldn't think of having an exhaustive coverage of all current research.
This global overview is completed by "case studies" of thematic activities and of networking activities and global programs.
Thematic case studies are intended to highlight some specific topics or crops in major themes, with emphasis on current and emerging challenges, on existing skills and capacities, in various countries and at international level, on fitness with the present and future needs, on networking and international cooperation.
In that way contributions are given in following areas :
Case-studies for networking and global programs are intended to present some key experiences in that field which may serve as support for new initiatives :
In such a global picture, including International Agricultural
Research Centers (IARCs), Advanced Research Institutes (ARIs),
and National Agricultural Research system (NARs), Italy's experience
is presented as an illustration the latter. 's experience
is presented as an illustration the latter.
2.1.1 Fruits are generally considered as a key element of agriculture and as a source of nutritional components of major interest.
Some of them rank among the most important crops in the world such as bananas, citrus, apple.
2.1.2 In some developing or emerging countries, the fruit sector is currently receiving great investment as source of diversification and income, for local market and moreover, export trade. Such is the case in some countries such as Colombia, Guatemala, Chile, Argentine, Malaysia... More attention is increasingly paid to minor fruits because of their nutritional value, (berries, native fruits such as camu-camu, kiwi,...), and because of their added value components for agricultural diversification. Nevertheless, they are still often considered as secondary crops or luxury crops, if compared to staple food crops and grains.
2.1.3 Therefore research efforts are very scarce and heterogenous, depending on the fruit status (trade, commodity such as banana, pineapple or apple, peach,... on the one hand ; local consumption on the other hand : durian, berries,...)
A reflection of that is the absence of an International Agricultural centre specializing bsence of an International Agricultural centre specializing in fruits. One exception is banana, which has benefited from an International Organization since 1986, named INIBAP (International Network for Improvement of Bananas and Plantains). IPGRI, in the field of Genetic Resources, is paying increasing attention to fruit crops.
2.1.4 All the NARS in the northern countries are involved in commodity fruit products and research is well organized. Among the responses we received, all the subsector activities are taken into account (genetic resources, genetic improvement, propagation and nursery, integrated production systems, post harvest technologies, economics). The scientific results are notable. Inter-country partnerships are rather weak.
2.1.5 In developing countries the picture is in considerable contrast, with countries where strong attention is paid to fruit research such as Brazil, Morocco, India, Malaysia, China, Taiwan, and countries where there is a great lack of expertise, of funds and of linkages with sources of information and improved material, such as in South Pacific Islands.
2.1.6 In order to enhance national and international cooperation, recent initiatives have been taken during the last decade to foster networking activities.
There are many networks regarding fruit. They are based on various
objectives which lead to a specialization ofrious
objectives which lead to a specialization of activities :
MECINET (citrus / Mediterranean area), IACNET (citrus / America),
SEANUC (Fruits / Africa), EUFRIN (Fruits / Europe), MESFIN (fruits
/ Mediterranean area), UTFANET (miscellaneous fruits / Asia),
INIBAP (bananas), REMUFRUT (Fruits / world). Many are focus on
genetic resources : TROPIGEN, REDARFIT, REMERFI (in Latin America),
NESCRA for citrus in Asia.
Special mention should be made for INIBAP which is acting in the framework of CGIAR.
In the context of the Global Forum Initiative, a global program on Musa improvement has been finalized, named PROMUSA. It is considered as a first experience of 'Global Agronomic Research System' (see special paper).
International societies such as ISCN and ISC for citrus, ACORBAT for bananas, play a relevant role in this field.
International commodity bodies exist for two fruits : one intergovernmental
group on bananas, and the other one on citrus and tropical fruits.
Several initiatives have been taken or are emerging from international organizations to improve fruit genetic resources, conservation and utilization.
They mostly come from FAO and IPGRI, and are detailed as case studies in the present document.
As examples :
At the country level significant activities are reported in various countries / regions.
In Europe activities are, for instance, reported :
In Mediterranean region, Turkey, which is an important center for native fruit species, is playing a great collecting role, principally at the University of Cukurova (deciduous and mediterranean fruits).
In North-America, temperate and sub-tropical fruit species
are stored either in whole plant or meristem (cryopreservation)
form.
In Canada, germplasm is housed at federal government sites.
In LAC region, valuable 'banana collections' are reported
in Honduras (FHIA), Brazil, and in the French West Indies (CIRAD
in Guadeloupe), and "pineapple collections" in French
West Indies, Brazil, Venezuela.
Brazil is also strongly involved in germplasm management
of cashew nut which is of high relevance in this country,
Barbados cherry, citrus, papaya, passion fruit and indigenous
fruit crops from the Amazon region.
In WANAus fruit crops from the Amazon region.
In WANA region, significant attention is paid to fruit genetic resources in Yemen where indigenous fruits and nuts are present and sometimes used as rootstocks (peach, almond...). Collecting works have been carried out. Recently, good conservation facilities in the Plant Genetic Resource Unit, are now available with support of IPGRI / WANANET. Interesting landraces of figs and pomegranate are reported. Farmers are involved in genetic resource preservation.
In Africa significant fruit collections are reported in
Sudan (date palm, citrus), in Kenya (citrus, bananas), in Cameroon
(citrus, mango, bananas...), in Côte d'Ivoire (mango, citrus).
It is worth noting the outstanding Musa collection of
CRBP in Cameroon. South Africa hosts significant collections of
citrus, mangoes, avocados and pomegranate.
In other countries, such as Ethiopia, there is a need for strenghtening
capacities in that field, where priority has given to staple and
industrial crops so far.
Asia, as the origin area of several temperate and tropical fruit species, is rich in fruit collections :
Conventional breeding is still playing a major role in fruit improvement. Such is the case in temperate countries, where most of the research is focused on resistance to biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses, plant architecture, size and quality traits.
Several example are reported in Europe for pome and stone fruits, including rootstocks breeding, small Fruits and nuts : Norway, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Germany, France, U.K., Slovenia, Bulgaria.
A European Network for the improvement and the evaluation of rootstocks and interstocks for pome and stone fruits is in progress, with participation of most European countries,
Other examples are reported in :
Breeding works on Citrus are reported in the USA, France, Japan, New Zealand, Spain.
With an aim of optimization and efficiency, genetic studies and non-conventional techniques, are increasingly supporting conventional breeding :
As examples :
It is worth noting that significant works are carried out in biotechnology on tropical species such as bananas in European laboratories : in France (CIRAD, Universities), Belgium (KUL), including somatic embryogenesis and genetic transformation.
In Mediterranean countries, breeding efforts are given to citrus, olive, date palm and some deciduous fruits. As example :
In WANA countries some breeding activities are reported :
In Africa, breeding activities are reported in several countries :
In Latin America fruit improvement activities are reported in Brazil, Honduras, Costa-Rica, Panama and in the French West Indies.
In Asia the most important works on tropical species and as well as temperate species, are reported in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Taiwan.
Other fruits are considered : mango, carambola, Passion Fruit . Wax apple, Sugar apple, Indian Jujube.
Special attention is given to banana breeding in TBRI, with a "somaclonal" approach. A resistant mutant was obtained which is considered as a breakthrough in the history of banana breeding in Taiwan. Some other promising cultivars are in progress.
Fruit breeding activities are also reported in other countries such as :
One of the main breakthroughs during the last decade is the achievement of in vitro propagation of several fruit crops, with a wide commercial development ; it is often associated with virus-free plantlet production, with an aim of plant certification which is a major concern.
As examples :
A special mention must be made of the outstanding system for banana certification, through INIBAP, which is based on an International Transit Centre (in Leuven/Belgium) and two indexing Centres (Montpellier/France and Brisbane/Australia).
Recent progress in somatic embryogensis has opened the way for
new mass propagation techniques, for bananas (CIRAD/France, KUL/Belgium,
CATIE/Costa-Rica) and for temperate fruits (e.g Italy: quince,
raspberry, olive, citrus).
Significant research is reported on several topics which can be grouped in four major themes.
- Integrated pest management
- Biological control
- Cross protection
- Diagnosis techniques
- Host
- Cross protection
- Diagnosis techniques
- Host pathogen interactions.
Integrated pest and disease management is commonly performed and associated to warning systems, aimed at reducing perticide use.
As examples :
It is worth noting that Phaeramularia angolensis (Citrus cercosporiosis) is a major constraint for citrus industry in Africa and a threat for citrus industry in North Africa and that, however, very little research has been conducted so far. Only a little is reported in Uganda and Cameroon.
Biological control studies, as component of IPM, are reported in various situations, with some examples :
in Belgium : microbial antagonists to control Botrytis
on strawberry.
- in Greece : biological control of scale insects on olive
and citrus and of white flies on subtropical plants.
- in Turkey : biological control of citrus leaf miner,
of capnodis in Prunus.
- in Brazil biological control (with B.t.) of weevil borer
of banana,
- in South Africa : parasitoid for Citrus Spiny Blackfly
and Citrus red scale,
- in India biological control of mealy bug in mango and
guava, with Bauveria bassiana
- in Ind
guava, with Bauveria bassiana
- in Indian Ocean and France for fruit fly,
- in Canada : for pest management on fruit trees and for
fungal control by biocontrol agents.
Cross protection, with a goal of controlling virus/viroids diseases, is the subject of research in a few areas :
- in Brazil : research is conducted on biological and molecular
characterization of virus, viroids and related pathogens to be
used in cross protection of citrus,
- in South Africa : citrus cross protection with mild strains
of Tristeza in now commonly used in nurseries.
In relation with decline diseases (virus, viroids,...) diagnotic techniques are reported such as :
- monoclonal antibodies and DNA probes for detection of citrus diseases (tristeza, greening, stubborn) in South Africa, France, Spain, Portugal, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea for detection of banana virus (BBTV, BBMV, CMV) in France, Australia, Philippines, USA.
Host-pathogen interactions are currently studied by several research
teams ; as example in Canada, the Federal Pest Management Research
Centre, etc...
Among the research reported in this very wide and integrated field, we have selected a few themes which are very relevant for fruit crops.
- Integrated Fruit Production
- Ecophysiological studies and phenology
- Use of growtBR>
- Ecophysiological studies and phenology
- Use of growth regulators
- Intensive crop management
- Irrigation and fertilization
- Pollinisation
- Fruit quality
- Organic agriculture
- Mycorrhizae
"Integrated Fruit Production" (IFP)
This approach, which is combining Integrated Pest Management and
crop environment, land and water management approaches is now
well developed in Europe, in Canada, USA, and is emerging in some
developing countries such as Malaysia (papaya, mangosteen, durian).
In Europe, "The IFP Guidelines for Pomefruits" were
issued in 1994 and are playing a reference role in the industry.
In Canada, IFP concept is included in programs such as the "Ecological
framework for Canada" and the "Environmental Farm Plan".
Ecophysiological studies include some basic studies on
phenology, which are conducted in several countries but
reported in very few (New Caledonia for banana, citrus,
mango and in Malaysia).
Some basic studies, reported in China, in Turkey,
are focused on phenological indicators of cold tolerance for citrus,
apple, peach, apricot, almond.
Studies on chilling requirements of temperate fruits in mild /
hot climate regions are reported in Yemen, Turkey,
...
In Morocco, Turkey, France, U.K.,
studies are reported onurkey, France, U.K.,
studies are reported on physiological mechanisms of flowering,
dormancy and fruitset in relation to fruit size, alternate bearing
and final quality of the fruit.
In Belgium, the University of Gembloux is involved in ecophysiology
of strawberry flowering.
Outstanding breakthroughs were in the field of architecture, growth
modeling and developmental physiology of fruit trees by a few
research teams around the world (France, Italy, USA, New Zealand,
...). A special paper on this subject is presented as a case study.
Research on production cycles are carried out on Victoria pineapple
in Reunion Island, and on Smooth Cayenne pineapple in Hawaii (modeling).
Ecophysiological studies on tropical and subtropical fruit species,
with environmental impact on fruit production, are carried out
in Germany (H.U. Berlin).
Growth regulators are currently used in the fruit industry,
as a result of an empirical approach in some cases, and increasingly
as a result of preliminary ecophysiological studies. On going
research in that field is reported for several fruit crops :
- use of ethylene for pineapple flower set (Brazil, Bangladesh,
Malaysia)
- alternate bearing of mango : Kenya (use of KNO3 and
ethefon), India (paclobutrazole), south Pacific Islands (Fiji),
Brazil, Malaysia, Pakistan, Mexico,...
- flower set of deciduous fruits in China, (peach), Kenya (use set of deciduous fruits in China, (peach), Kenya (use
of Dormex), Pakistan (cherries, apricots), Germany, Canada (blueberry),
Turkey (peach, apricot, sweet cherries),
- flowering control of citrus in Morocco and Japan and several
tropical fruits in Malaysia (mangosteen, durian, carambola, ...)
and Pakistan,
- growth regulator effects on strawberry runner production (Canada),
on strawberry flowering (U.K.), on thinning of apple and peach
(Turkey).
Intensive fruit crop management is reported in several
countries, as a cost effective goal for production.
Utilization of dwarf rootstocks combined with high densities
and specific cultural practices such as pruning, thinning, etc...
is subject to research on :
- semi intensive culture of apple in Bulgaria ; intensive culture
of plum, cherries in Belgium, ultra-high density production systems
for dwarf apple and pear trees in Canada,
- citrus production and deciduous fruits in South Africa, Morocco,
Israel, Turkey, New Caledonia, China
- mango production in India, Israel, South Africa.
Canopy management and mechanization, linked to density and light penetration are studied in Spain (robot for citrus harvest), in Taiwan (mango, litchi), Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan (citrus)...
Protected crops are reported in various situations such as in Norway (sweet cherries and plum production), Portugal (off season production of reum production), Portugal (off season production of red raspberries), Spain (strawberry), Korea (citrus, grape, pear), Morocco (bananas, peaches, ...) with two mains objectives : protection against adverse conditions (rain, temperature) and extension of marketing period.
Irrigation and fertilization are considered as key elements
of yield and quality above all. Significant research is reported
in Morocco, Israel and the USA (citrus and deciduous trees), Greece
(Olive, Citrus, Avocado, Kiwifruit, apple, peach), Italy (peach,
quince), Spain (citrus) , South Africa (citrus, banana, mango,
guava, deciduous trees), India (citrus and banana), Pakistan (mango,
deciduous fruits), Reunion Island (mango), Brazil (cashew), Malaysia
(durian, mango, mangosteen, carambola, banana).
Micrometric studies are carried out in France on deciduous fruits
and in Reunion Island on mango in order to evaluate water requirements
; plant-water relations studies are also reported in Germany.
Some research on pollination as a key factor for production is especially reported for date palm in Morocco and Pakistan, and other fruits trees in Greece (self incompatibility, pollen tubes growth).
Fruit quality is a common objective of several research activities previously reported. Specific research on 'quality elaboration' is reported in France by INRA and CIRAD (peach, citrus, banana), Greece (peaches), South Africa (decis, banana), Greece (peaches), South Africa (deciduous fruits), Taiwan (mango), New Zealand (Carbon partitionship), Canada (deciduous fruits).
Some examples of research of organic agriculture are reported in Egypt, Taiwan (guava), Slovenia, and the USA.
Special attention is paid to the use of mycorrhizaes in Canada
: effect of micorrhizal population on the growth, development
and yield of strawberry.
The statement is frequently made that here is a lack of appropriate
technologies and research in developing countries (Kenya, Uganda,
Southern Africa, Cambodia, ...) facing very high post-harvest
losses levels.
Two major sectors are considered : post harvest management
of fresh fruits and processing, with three key words
: post harvest losses, quality and human health (including the
pesticide residue aspects).
Research on post harvest management of fresh fruits
is widely reported including, generally, cold storage, controlled
atmosphere and sometimes specific technologies such as precooling
or ionization.
- Research on cold storage and controlled atmosphere are carried
out in several countries : European countries, Turkey, Canada,
USA, Japan, Brazil, Kenya (mainly on mango, avocado, passion fruit,
papaya), South Africa (mango, litchi, papaya, pineapple and deciduous
fruits), Bangladesh, Malaysia, China, Indie and deciduous
fruits), Bangladesh, Malaysia, China, India ("zero energy
cold chamber"). Such techniques are considered as environmentally
friendly.
- Reference to "precooling technology" is done in India
for mango in Turkey,
- Post-harvest fruits preservation, using non chemical treatments,
is reported in Canada (ionizing radiations), in New Zealand, Australia,
New Caledonia (hot water treatments), France (micro-waves treatments
for dates),
- Studies on post harvest physiology and ripening are reported
in Brazil (banana, papaya), Pakistan (mango, mandarin), Korea
(ethylene releasing agents), China (use of growth regulators),
Malaysia (fruit softening), France (deciduous fruits, mango, litchi),
Belgium.
Research on the effects of pre-harvest technologies on post harvest quality is reported in South Africa for mango, pineapple, macadamia, banana, in France (FWI) for bananas, Canada for a wide range of temperate fruits. In the same way, attention is paid to harvesting time, and maturity / harvesting indices in European countries, Morocco (for citrus, date, olives...), Kenya (avocado), Sri Lanka.
INRA in France, Hort Research in New Zealand, HRI in U.K., and some other institutions in Greece, Italy or Canada for example, are paying a special attention to the ethylene biology, biosynthesis and genes expression in maturation and post harvest evoluts expression in maturation and post harvest evolution and to biochemical processes which are responsible for physiological disorders, such as enzymatic darkening of fruits, or which are responsible for starch sugar or acid levels. Biochemical and molecular markers of fruit development are identified for texture and flavor.
Improvement of harvesting and handling techniques is made in several
cases : Morocco for citrus, South Africa, Sri Lanka (low cost
appropriate technologies), Malaysia, Thaïland, New Zealand
(Apple, Kiwifruit). Quality management is a key element of the
fresh fruit industry calling for innovative approaches such as
HACCP techniques and non-destructive assessment of the quality
(examples are reported in France, UK, Belgium, New Zealand, Canada).
Antagonist fungi are considered as a key alternative to pesticides
in South Africa, Italy, ...
Improving shelf life is also a major concern in various areas
such as Thaïland.
Fruit processing is a major component of the fruit industry, receiving
an increasing attention from the agro-industrial sector in relation
with consumer needs (healthy products). Almost every producing
country is more or less involved in fruit agro-industry research
: Norway (drying techniques, breakfast cereals...), France (drying
and enzymatic techniques for temperate or tropical fruits), Portugal
(dried fruits), Canada (microbial research in preservation and
cryogenic freezing), Brch in preservation and
cryogenic freezing), Brazil (cashew juice), Sudan (mango, grapefruit
concentrate, lemon drying), South Africa (juice without preservatives),
Bangladesh, Taiwan (heat processing concentration, fermentation,
drying), India (canned mango slices and juices), Pakistan (fruit
drying), Korea (fermented food), Malaysia (minimally processed
products).
New processing technologies are being worked on, focusing on product
quality, such as membrane techniques for juice (CIRAD France,
Colombia).
Quality assurance systems for selected processed fruits are subjects
of increasing attention in several countries (European countries,
Malaysia...).
On-going research in this field is not very common. Two main aspects
are considered :
- crop management
- marketing chain and trade studies
In the first category, studies are reported in Greece (Efficency of greenhouse enterprises, productivity of peaches and oranges ; costs of production and economic efficiency ; contribution of the tree-production systems to the economic and social development of semi-mountain and montain areas of Greece), France (fruit production costs, competition effects, work remuneration), Egypt and Turkey (management of citrus orchards), Sudan (socio economic studies of production and marketing for date, lemon), Banglies of production and marketing for date, lemon), Bangladesh (survey on current state of production, production costs and return, input assessment), India (expert system for technology transfer), Malaysia (agribusiness and technology management).
In the second category, major activities are reported in France
and Belgium with studies related to subsector marketing and world
fruit trade including the regulation of professional organization
and the globalization process. Some 'trade intelligence' studies
are reported in Sri Lanka.
A special mention must be done to "Urban aspects of fruit
production and trading" in Germany (H.U. Berlin).
A particular attention is increasingly given to the elaboration
of produce qualities, specifying the origin of the product (labelling,
...), e.g in European countries such as Greece (specification
of
"Mediterranean products" as traditional Greeck products).
3.1.1 The field of vegetables is characterized by a great diversity of species and cultivars and by a great diversity of situations. In each situation only a few types are subjected to research programs with little in common from one country to another. Nevertheless, vegetables represent unique crops which are grown under all climatic conditions, from cold to equatorial climate, all climatic conditions, from cold to equatorial climate, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, cabbage, etc.
3.1.2 They play a major and increasing
role in basic food security. For the rural and urban population
in the tropics, vegetables are considered as an important source
of vitamins and minerals. They also contribute to roughage and
fiber, and supplementary protein and calories. They play direct
and indirect roles in diversifying dietary patterns and providing
employment, especially to women, and income to purchase the components
of a balanced diet. For the developed countries, vegetables are
increasingly subject for attention as lowering the risk of certain
diseases.
Currently, average vegetable availability per capita per day is
estimated at about 100-110g in South Asia, Southeast Asia and
South America, while in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is far below 100
g. These averages are only about half of the recommended 200 g
that is necessary to provide adequate amounts of essential micronutrients.
3.1.3 Nevertheless, during the last decades, and despite their economic role and their importance in the human diet, they have not generally been given the research attention they deserve, particularly in Africa and some Asian countries where priority is given to staple grains and food crops, or industrial crops (Malaysia). Therefore, in several conditions, horticultural crops, including vegetables, rechorticultural crops, including vegetables, received the least attention in terms of funding as they were considered luxury crops (Zimbabwe, Malawi, Zambia...).
3.1.4 Increasing attention paid to these
crops is rather recent, in relation to :
- their "food security" value, as in Malawi where
the largest sector of the population depends on vegetables as
their major sources of proteins, due to lack of "animal proteins".
- their economic value for local markets and for export, as in
Argentina where increasing presence of supermarkets and
new trading opportunities (global / regional market as Mercosur)
are favoring these crops, in Guatemala, where export vegetables
appear to be a very promising system because of their high labor
intensity and expanding demand in industrialized countries, or
in Korea where horticultural crops are considered to be
a better source of rural income than other crops.
Vegetable production is substantially labor-intensive ; thus,
it generates more income per unit of labor or land occupied per
day than cereal production.
In traditional producing countries, as India or China, and new
producing countries as well, the general trend is that of a shift
from small scale production system (small holders) to commercial
oriented production system, which generates new needs for research
with key words like 'quality', 'competitivenesrch
with key words like 'quality', 'competitiveness', 'human health',
'environmentally friendly production'...
In that context, urban and peri-urban horticulture needs special
emphasis.
3.1.5 In the same way "food safety" and environmental aspects are becoming more and more important as research objectives. As a matter of fact, vegetable production could have certain negative effects on the environment and human health. Soil erosion, poor water quality, and pesticide residues are major issues in the tropical highlands.
3.1.6 Generally speaking, attention has
been given to research needs during the last decades in some European
and North American countries and in some Asian countries such
as India, China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Bangladesh... with the generation
of various technologies :
- protected crops in northern countries
- resistance to pest and disease, and tolerance to heat in tropical
countries.
- optimization of watering and plant nutrition.
For example, in the past three decades, India has made significant progress in the field of vegetable research, as it is the second largest vegetable producer in the world after China where big research efforts are also being made in that field.
3.1.7 In many developing countries, most of the
vegetable seeds are imported from developed (and temperate) counble seeds are imported from developed (and temperate) countries,
very expensive and unsuited to local conditions.
There is a great need for research and development in that field
where many activities are relevant to the private sector.
Except for vegetatively propagated vegetables, such as garlic, shallot, potato, ... genetic resources are preserved through seed conservation.
In Europe, and Mediterranean Region, some significant germplasm collections are reported.
As examples :
- In Turkey : which is the genetic origin of several vegetables,
great emphasis is given to the germplasm collection evaluation
and characterization (radish, naked pumpkin, squash, leek),
- In Greece : 1 600 indigenous populations of vegetable
plants are preserved in cold storage facilities in the multicrop
Greek gene bank. It represents only a fraction of the existing
germplasm in the geographic area of Greece, which is planned to
be collected in the coming years.
- In France, a collection of several vegetables has been
evaluated and is currently maintained within networks at the 'Bureau
des resssources génétiques' : eggplant, mushrooms,
tomato, cabbages, etc.
- In Germany, germplasm conservation is conducted on a
broad scale at the "Federal Center for Breeding Research
on Cultivated Plants" in GaterslebeBreeding Research
on Cultivated Plants" in Gatersleben.
- Portugal has a high genetic diversity of Brassica
landraces, that are the basis of a Brassica germplasm
collection at Institudo Superior de Agronomia, Lisboa.
- Vegetable genebanks are also reported in Slovenia, New
Zealand, and Italy (artichoke, bean, pepper),
- In Canada, a collection of potato germplasm is maintained
by Agriculture and Agrifood Canada, and a tissue culture bank
of potato seeds , too, in Alberta.
Significant activities on genetic resources are reported in Africa and in Asia as well.
In Africa, collection and characterization of indigenous vegetables (including leafy vegetables, cucurbits, ...) are undertaken in Uganda and Kenya, where they are called AIV (African Indigenous Vegetables). Vegetable genebanks are also reported in Sudan which is the origin of several crops including watermelon and in Ivory Coast, including 1 160 varieties as the basis of a genetic improvement program.
In Asia, great attention is paid to vegetable genetic resources. AVRDC (3)plays a leading role in that field with an impressive collection of various key vegetables (1996's datas) : Allium (985 accessions), Crucifers (1 522 accessions including 800 of Chinese cabbage), Eggplants (2 246 accessions), Pepper (6 857 acc), Eggplants (2 246 accessions), Pepper (6 857 accessions, managed in collaboration with UPLB in the Philippines), Tomatoes (6 951 accessions), Legumes (6 257 accessions of mungbean and 12759 accessions of soybean).
Apart from AVRDC, but often in relation with them, several countries in the region are also paying great attention to vegetable genetic resources :
- China, with a long history of vegetable industry has
rich germplasm resources, as it is the originating center or secondary
originating center for many vegetables. More than 16 000 local
germplasm accessions were collected and sorted out during the
last 20 years, and some threatened material was saved. Many rare
vegetables were discovered in areas such as Yunnan, Inner Mongolia,
Xingiang and Tibet. All these achievements have laid a firm foundation
for vegetable germplasm resource study in China.
In the field of roots and tubers, CIP(4) is
playing a major role :
A lot of work is currently conducted by seed companies and information
is not easily available.
In temperate and mediterranean countries, most
of the research is focused on resistance to pests and diseases,
using conventional (including cytoplasmic male sterility, self
incompatibility) and non conventional approaches (including haploidization
and gene transfer). Such work is reported from all western European
countries, USA, New Zealand, Slovenia, Turkey, Japan, Korea.
As examples :
Haploidization methods has been very successful especially
in melon and shallot, in France, in onion in Slosful especially
in melon and shallot, in France, in onion in Slovenia, in asparagus,
onion, eggplant and pepper in Italy., in melon in Turkey,
Biochemical and molecular approaches are applied in several
situations :
In subtropical and tropical countries, numerous
work is reported.
In Asia, AVRDC is playing a major role in connection with
Asian countries where improved varieties are evaluatection with
Asian countries where improved varieties are evaluated (such as
Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand...)
Conventional methods include hybridization, clonal selection (garlic),
mutation (garlic), cytoplasm male sterility (crucifers).
Molecular marker assisted breeding is increasingly used, especially
for resistance to TLCV, CMV, PVY.
Biotechnological methods are used such as :
In Taiwan, the national organizations, especially TARI,
are conducting activities in partnership with AVRDC and also on
complementary crops :
Biotechnological techniques are performed such as haploidization
of Brassica, linkage mapping of melon, genetic
transformation of melon and watermelon for resistance to viruses.
In China a great deal of new improved varieties were released
from traditional breeding (tomato, green bean, sweet pepper) and
using hybrid vigour aimed at hybrid seed production technology.
A major objective is disease resistance.
In Bangladesh, research is conducted on traditional breeding
and F1 hybrid production for resistance to pests (borer) and diseases
(bacterial wilt, virus) of various vegetables (brinjal, tomato,
watermelon, bottle gourd, onion, chilli)
In India research focus is enhancing productivity through
exploitation of hybrid vigor and breeding for high yielding, disease
resistant varieties. Since 1971, a great number of hybrids have
been developed in tomato, brinjal, squash, mushroom, cucumber,
pepper, cabbage, cauliflower, watermelon, radish, onion, garlic,
potatoe, ...
Emphasis was also put on breeding of cabbage and cauliflower,
heat tolerant varieties adapted to the southern region of India.
Breeding activities are also reported in :
In Africa, research is conducted in West Africa, in Tanzania,
in the framework of ARP/cted in West Africa, in Tanzania,
in the framework of ARP/AVRDC and in South Africa.
In Indian Ocean region, research is carried out by CIRAD
in Reunion Islion, research is carried out by CIRAD
in Reunion Island on Allium improvement (onion, garlic, shallot)
and by MSIRI in Mauritius on tomato (salad and cooking varieties)
in relation with AVRDC.
In WANA region, Egypt is reporting work conducted by AGERI
(Agricultural Genetic Engineering Research Institution) on gene
mapping of tomato and genetic transformation on squash
and cantaloupe for resistance to ZYMV, on tomato for resistance
to leafcurl virus, on potato for resistance to virus Y.
Finally in Latin America, Brazil (especially EMBRAPA
/ CNPH) is conducting breeding for Brassica oleacea (focused
on resistance to diseases and adaptation to heat), supported by
self incompatible parent lines, embryo rescue technique and genetic
transformation approach for resistance to viruses.
In Central America, Panama is involved in breeding
of processing tomato and pepper (resistance to bacterial wilt),
onion, melon, watermelon, carrot, potato,...
CIP is deeply involved in potato and sweetpotato enhancement,
based on marker-aided breeding and biotechnology :
In most situations, seed production is in the hands of the private
sector. In most developing countries, seeds are mainly imported
from the international market, due to lack of appropriate technology
in these countries. Information and training are also lacking.
Nevertheless, some positive evolutions are noticeable, e.g in
South Pacific were seed policy guidelines are being developed
for vegetables.
India is self-sufficient in temperate vegetable seeds,
due to "open seed policy" of India which has
encouraged many private companies and joint ventures between public
and private sectors. Thaïland is currently exporting
seeds. In Kenya emphasis is put on vegetable seed production
in high altitude (carrots, onion, cabbage) and on tropical seed
of indigenous vegetables (through NGOs). Little basic seed production
is reported in Africa, e.g in Mauritania, Senegal, Chad.
In several cases, emphasis is put on "virus free" production
of vegetative vegetables such as potatoes and garlic :
Grafting on resistant rootstocks is worked out in Morocco for
resistance to nematodes (tomato, cucumber, melon) and in the Carribean
for resistance to bacterial wilt.
Integrated Pests and Diseases Management of protected or open
field crops is the key word for vegetable plant protection. It
is a combination of genetic resistance / tolerance, pesticide
applications, cultural practices, biological control, with respect
to environment and human health and aiming to reduce risks of
overcoming resistance.
Awareness of this important approach varies from one country to
another.
- Basic studies on development of diagnostic tools, on variability,
on plant-host interaction and on the structures and dynamics of
parasite populations are conducted in some places such as INRA
in France, AVRDC in Taiwan (allium, pepper, tomato pests and diseases),
CIP in Peru (potato, sweet potato), Canada (molecular approaches).
- Fungus diseases are studied in several situations, including
forecasting systems in some cases (such as in Egypt for potato
early blight) : late blight, fusarium wilt.
- Soil borne diseases, including nematodes, are particularly studied
in France(ORSTOM and INRA), Belgium (KUL), Italy, Morocco, the
Carribean, Brazil (EMBRAPA), Senegal, Uganda, Kenya. New biological
pesticides are tested in several situations (such as neem in Kenya,
Canada, Vietnam...).
- Virus complexes (TYLCV, Geminivirus,...) are studied in interaction
with insect vectors (Liriomyza, aphids) in Cyprus, India,
French West Indies, Reunion Island (virus disease of garlic and
shallot), Mauritius (epidemiology of Potato Virus Y and Tomato
Mosaic Virus), Peru by CIP (diagnosis and management of virus
in seed and production systems of potato and sweet potato), Canada
(potato leafros of potato and sweet potato), Canada
(potato leafroller virus, tomato mosaïc virus, etc ...).
Significant research is conducted on several topics which can
be grouped into five categories&nbstopics which can
be grouped into five categories :
In AVRDC, emphasis is put on the effect of daylength, of temperature
and flooding on growth and development of Allium. Growth regulator
use is studied in Cyprus (tomato fruit set), in Bangladesh (flower
/ fruit set in potato / tomato, sex modification (teastle ground,
cucumber). Plant-water relations are considered in Italy
(tomato, artichoke).
Biochemical and molecular characterization of the growth and development
of tomato is currently carried out in France by INRA, in relation
to the final fruit quality. Some research teams (INRA/France,
KUL/Belgium) are also paying attention to research related to
the optimization of resntion to research related to
the optimization of resource management such as carbon and nitrogen
(in order to reduce the nitrate content).
Year-round production is a major goal in several situations, including
tropical and sub-tropical countries :
Studies on protected crops are conducted in temperate and
mediterranean countries and focused on year-round and off-season
production including in some cases heating during winter period
(Netherlands, Belgium, France, U.K, Norway, Switzerland, Greece,
Canada, Korea, Japan, Turkey, Morocco, Arab countries) and in
subtropical / tropical countries as well with a goal of rainy
season off-season production : tomato in French West Indies,
cauliflower and tomato in Bangladesh, onion in Northern
India , vegetable forcing under tunnels in Pakistan,
development of cost-effective systems including nutrients, bio-organic
fertilizers, soil-less cultures in China, wool fiber substitute
cultivation in Germany (TUM), types / colors of netcover
for melon and asparagus in Taiwan. Attention is given to substrate
and nutrient recycling by various research teams in France (INRA),
Belgium (Gent),...
Increasing activities are carried out in the field of urban
agriculture : e.g TUM (Germany), France (CIRAD), the Netherlands
(DLO) and U.K. (NRI), in partnership with Asian and African countries
(see case-study by W. SCHNITZLER).
Irrigation and fetivity and plant health).
Irrigation and fertigation are commonly worked out in several
situations, overall in Mediterranean and Sahelian climates, e.g
in Morocco (assessment of irrigation systems, water requirements).
Two key words are "quality" and "food safety"
for fresh as well as processed or canned vegetable.
Research on fresh vegetables, post harvest treatments and storage
including cold conditions and controlled atmosphere is reported
in several countries. :
Emphasis is generally put on non destructive measuring of quality
(France, Belgium, ...) and on maturity indices as well,
which are a key element of post-harvest quality (Kenya, Sri Lanka,
Morocco).
In the field of processing work is reported in Bangladesh
(heat processing, fermentation, drying and concentration of potato,
tomato, onion, cabbage), in Malaysia (fluidized drying of vegetable
snacks), in Taiwan (vegetable pickles, fermented vegetables),
in Korea (new processed food from melon, radish, ...), in France
'ready-to-use' products (enzymatic liquefaction of juices and
purées, steam pasteurization), in New Zealand (adding value
to primary vegetable products).
An increasing attention is given to minimally processed and "ready-to-eat"
vegetables with appropriate packaging, e.g in France, Italy, Malaysia.
In several situations in developing countries a lack of effort
in this field is reported, which is considered as a major cause
of post-harvest losses and low competitiveness. Therefore, it
is generally considered as a high priority for the future, for
local market and export as well. Such is the case in Brazil, in
African countries (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Zambia,
Malawi, Ethiopia), in Sri-Lanka (low cost appropriate technology
to reduce post-harvest losses), in Cambodia.
Very little research is reported in this field except in Taïwan
by AVRDC, in European countries, e.g France, the Netherlands,
...(competitiveness in international markets, including commercial
chain and management at the producers level, vegetables supply
of urban areas in Africa and marketing-chain studies).
Increasing attention is paid to "Information Systems on Markets",
e.g in West and Central Africa countries such as Senegal, Chad,
Cape Verde, Africa countries such as Senegal, Chad,
Cape Verde, Ivory Coast.
1. Olive, date palm, pistachio, walnut, ...
- Taïwan , where active programs in the collection,
conservation and characterization of vegetables have been taking
place under the coordination of the National Plant Genetic Resources
Center, which was established in 1993.
- Bangladesh has given priority to indigenous vegetable
genetic resources and is conducting activities of germplasm collection,
evaluation and characterization, conservation of seeds for medium
and long term at its Plant Genetic Resources Center. They exchange
germplasm both at national and international levels.
- Malaysia as well, has given emphasis to indigenous vegetables,
in close cooperation with PROSEA (Plant Resources in South East
Asia), IPGRI, CIP, AVRDC and JIRCAS (Japan).
- Korea is also conducting activities in germplasm evaluation,
conservation and characterization.
- Biodiversity of potato, sweet potato and Andean root and tuber
crops,
- Collection, description, maintenance, evaluation and utilization
of germplasm.
3.3 - Plant improvement
Protoplast fusion is used in Korea,
Transgenic technology is being carried out in several countries,
e.g :
AVRDC priority crops, with related objectives, are :
- Tomato : fresh market, processed tomato, cherry tomato. Year
round production supply in tropical countries, adaptation to high
temperature and high humidity with resistance to Bacterial wilt,
Late blight, viruses (TYLCV, CMV, PVY).
- Peppers : improved inbred lines for resistance to anthracnosis,
CMV, CVMV, mites, thrips and tolerance to flooding.
- Eggplants : stable high yielding varieties with improved fruit
quality and resistance to bacterial wilt (and leafhopper and cotton
aphid)
- Alliums : onions, garlic, shallots...: long bulb storage quality
of onion and garlic, heat tolerance, resistance to diseases (Stemphyllium
leaf blight, anthracnose, garlic viruses) and pests (onion thrips).
- Crucifers : Chinese cabbage and common cabbage, heat tolerance,
high yielding and early maturing, with resistance to diseases
such as TuMV (Turnip Mosaic Virus)
- Mungbean, soybean.
- QTL mapping of bacterial wilt resistance
- Identific QTL mapping of bacterial wilt resistance
- Identification of molecular markers linked to heat tolerance
- Transformation (agrobacterium) of tomato for resistance to fusarium
wilt.
- cucurbits : cucumber, melon, gourd, watermelon
- leafy vegetable ; spinach, amaranths,
- crucifers : broccoli, mustard
- radish
- yard longbean
Non-conventional techniques were used such as radiation breeding,
anther culture for haploid plants (eggplant, tomato, Chinese
cabbage, hot pepper), protoplast culture of cucumber, tomato,
carrot, sweet pepper.
Biotechnology watermelon, bottle gourd, onion, chilli)
Biotechnology work is being performed through somatic embryogenesis
of teastle gourd, watermelon, aroids, on meristem culture of
potatoes for elimination of virus and true potato seed
progenies.
Some achievements in biotechnology are reported :
- protoplasts from leaf mesophyll of capsicum and tomato
- anther culture of carrots,
- embryo rescue of triploid progenies of watermelon,
- micro propagation of triploid watermelon
- genetic transformation (Agrobacterium) of potato with CP gene
and BT gene.
- Pakistan : tomato, pepper, onion, watermelon, potato
- Sri Lanka : brinjal, tomato, capsicum, okra
- Indonesia : tomato, potato, cabbage, shallot, chilli
- Malaysia : conventional breeding and genetic transformation.
Multi resistant selected tomato lines have already been released
in collaboration with other SADC countries and Kenya, Uganda.
- broadening the genetic base of potatoes, by using wild potato
species,
- developing superior vegetable breeding lines and cultivars
with drought and disease resistance with support of DNA marker
technology and genetic transformation.
In Argentina, INIFAT, is developing new cultivars (potato,
sweet potato, onion, tomato, beans, paprika, sweet corn), through
joint ventures with private enterprises.
A project on "Genetic transformation of Roots and Tubers"
is conducted by University "Santa Maria la Antigua".
- one major goal is durable Late Blight resistances.
3.4 - Propagation / Nursery
We have noticed some exceptions in India, Korea, Thaïland,
and Kenya where seed quality enhancement is a priority.
vegetative vegetables such as potatoes and garlic :
- in Brazil, Bangladesh ("True potato seeds"), Vietnam,
Indonesia, Pakistan, Indonesia (meristem culture of potato), Morocco
(micro-tuber production),
- in AVRDC (garlic, shallot),
- in CIP (True Potato seed varieties and seed systems).
Somatic embryogenesis is reported for asparagus micro propagation
in New Zealand, and for garlic in Turkey.
It is worth noticing the "International Chili Pepper Nursery"
(ICPN) in AVRDC, which is the new name of INTHOPE (International
Hot Pepper Network) to conform with international standards for
naming nurseries.
3.5 - Plant protection
In developing countries, some countries such as Thaïland
are paying a strong attention to this matter.
But in numerous casesstrong attention to this matter.
But in numerous cases (Ethiopia, Vietnam, ...) due to shortage
of experiencied manpower, training and facilities, achievements
are very limited, generating risky stituations for environment
and human health.
3.6 - Crop production
- ecophysiological studies
- year-round production
- protected culture
- urban agriculture, home garden and hydroponics
- organic culture
Ecophysiological studies are devoted to interaction between
environmental factors and growth and development of the plants,
especially for protected crops, with a goal of modeling (see paper
by C. Gary). Such research is principally reported in France,
U.K., Norway, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, New Zealand,
Canada, USA, Cyprus, Japan... and also in Colombia. The quality
of vegetables in relation to environmental factors and cultural
techniques is a major goal in several situations, for example
in Greece, in Italy, in Portugal (brassicas).
- in Asia : South East Asia, India, Taïwan,
- in Africa : e.g, enhancing onion production period through the
use of precocious production technique based on small bulbs (Burkina
Faso, Cape Verde, Senegal).
Substrate culture and NFT (Nutrient Fil,...
Substrate culture and NFT (Nutrient Film Technique) are being
worked in Turkey.
Studies on soilless production system are reported in Italy
(effect of closed and open system in tomato, melon, ...) in Turkey
and in Reunion Island (prevention of bacterial wilt). INRA
in France, University of Gent in Belgium, are giving particular
attention to the development of hydroponic crops where water and
mineral supplies need to be simultaneously regulated.
For home garden and hydroponics, emphasis in these
fields is mostly put in Asia, such as Bangladesh (year-round vegetable
production model for home garden), Taiwan and AVRDC (hydroponics
for household use ; non recycling system).
Work on organic agriculture is increasing very fast. It
is reported in Egypt (biofertilization and biological control
of pests and diseases) in Turkey and Taiwan (application of effective
microorganisms), USA.
Many activities in that field were started in Switzerland, in
the Netherlands, and have a high priority in other countries in
Europe (crop rotation, organic nutrition, special ingredients
for soil activity and plant health).
3.7 - Post harvest
- Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, France, U.K., Canada, Turkey,
Japan, Morocco ... : controlled atmosphere storage and packaging
;
- Argentina : post-harvest technology for prolonged shelf life
of products (tomatoes, potatoes, paprika, onion and garlic, melon,
strawberries) ;
- Bangladesh : cold storage, shelf life improvement
- Malaysia and Thaïland : mechanized packing house systems,
controlled atmosphere and cold storage
- China : cold storage and fast-frozen conservation, Gamma-ray
irradiation.
- Taiwan : cold storage of garlic bulbs, controlled atmosphere
storage of cabbage ; improved shelf life of leafy vegetables by
pre-cooling system and controlled atmosphere storage.
- Korea : storage methods during shipping for prolonged freshness
(radish, cherry, tomato), improvement of packing methods of strawberry
for expoto), improvement of packing methods of strawberry
for export.
- New Zealand : harvest scheduling, handling, desinfestation,
prolonging shelf life.
- Greece : storage at low temperature, post harvest handling (e.g
asparagus),
- West Africa : onion storage (low cost and locally feasible techniques).
Emphasis is put on nutritional value by KARI in Kenya, by AVRDC
in Taiwan, INRA in France, HRI in U.K., Food and Crop Institute
in New Zealand : development of methodologies for quality
assessment and for improving nutritional quality (AVRDC) effect
of food processing nutritional quality (AVRDC) effect
of food processing (cooking...) on presence of iron (quality)
quality evaluation of vegetables dehydrated under low temperatures
and humidities) (AVRDC) role of secondary metabolites with antioxidative
properties, as prevention tool for some diseases (INRA/France
; TUM/Germany, Food and Crop/New Zealand), safety of products
for consumers e.g in the Netherlands, France, ...
3.8 - Economics / Marketing
2. Banana, pineapple, papaya, mango, litchi,
loquat, macadamia, guava.
3. AVRDC : Asian Vegetal Research and Development
Center
4. "Potato International Center"
© WCHR