HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH IN INDIA

Research Achievements 

Research Achievements :

A. Crop Improvement

In vegetable improvement, research focus is on accelerating productivity through exploitation of hybrid vigour and breeding for high yielding disease resistant varieties. More than 160 varieties including 29 F₁ hybrids have been released in vegetable crops. The first hybrid variety in vegetable crops was developed in bottlegourd in 1971 and thereafter, a number of hybrids have been developed in tomato, brinjal, squash, mushroom, cucumber, capsicum, cabbage, cauliflower, watermelon etc. In chillies CH-1 developed by PAU, Ludhiana has 160 % heterosis for yield, whereas in muskmelon Punjab Hybrid-1 is a leading hybrid in Northern India. In brinjal, Arka Navneet, Pusa Hybrid-5 are promising and in cucumber Pusa Sanyog developed by crossing Japanese gynoecious line and Green Long Neples, is gaining popularity.

For different parts of the country large number of improved vegetable varieties have been recommended. In addition to yield increase, many of these improved varieties are resistant to different diseases and insect pests. In tomato, cold set (Pusa Sheetal), hot set (Pusa Hybrid-1) and bacterial wilt resistant varieties have enabled to grow tomato successfully in many nontraditional areas. In brinjal, Pusa Purple Long is popular all over the country, while pea var popular all over the country, while pea variety Arkel has simply revolutionised production of early pea. In watermelon, Sugar Baby in northern states and Arka Manik in southern states are ruling commercial varieties.

Some of the areas where impacts are felt have been indicated below :

a. Hybrid seed production has become easier through development of self incompatible lines in cauliflower and gynoecious lines in cucumber and muskmelon. Genetic male sterile lines are now available in tomato.
b. Identification of N-53 variety of onion and development of technology for kharif onion has enabled to get two crops of onion annually in northern India.
c. 'Pusa Early Sunthetic' cauliflower made it possible to grow cauliflower even in warmer South India. Cauliflower is now grown in non-traditional Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka States.
d. Multiple disease resistant 'Arka Manik' watermelon has saturated southern states.
e. Radish and tomato can now be grown all the year round due to availability of suitable varieties.
f. It is estimated that more than about 10,000 ha is covered by F1 hybrids of tomato and cabbage in southern states.
g. India has achieved self sufficiency in seeds of temperate vegetables and started exporting.

During the last 4 decades nearly 33 varieties in onion and 11 varieties in garlic have been developed and released. Some of the improved hybridsveloped and released. Some of the improved hybrids and varieties developed are Arka Lalima, Arka Kirtiman, Arka Pitamber, Pusa Safed, Pusa Red, Pusa Madhavi, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa White Round, Pusa White Flat, Arka Niketan, Arka Kalyan Red Round, Punjab Selection, Punjab Red Round, CO-4.

The potato improvement programmme gained sound footing with the development of disease free breeding material in the plains. Since 1958, a total of 29 high yielding varieties have been released for different agroclimatic situations in the country, Several of these varieties possess resistance to diseases like late blight and wart, and pests like cyst nematodes, and tolerance to viruses. Out of the released cultivars, however, only eleven, viz., Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Lalima, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Lauvkar, Gulmarh Special and recently released ones Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Megha and Kufri Swarna are being produced, respectively at Shillong (North Eastern hills) and Ootacamund (south Indian hills) to meet the local requirements. Kufri Kanchan - a wart immune and late blight resistant culture is likely to be released for Darjeeling hills where wart and late blight are limiting factors.

The high seed cost, the problems of transport and virus infiltration in seed tubers leading to degeneration of seed stocks, have led to the utilization f seed stocks, have led to the utilization of true potato seed (TPS) technology.

Research efforts in the area of biotechnology for vegetable improvement are comparatively new. Some of research highlights are:

i) Protoplasts have been isolated and purified from the leaf mesophyll tissues of capsicum and tomato using linear gradient of percoll. The protoplasts will serve as effective tools for genetic transformations.
ii) Synchronisation of cell division in cultures derived from phloem explants of carrot has been achieved by blocking the dividing cells in the G 1/S phase by aphidicolin.
iii) Anthers of capsicum cv. Arka Gaurav and tomato F₁ hybrid Avinash-2 responded to culture with an embryogenic like response without an intervening callus phase.
iv) Triploid progenies from immature fruits/seeds of 4n X 2n crosses of watermelon could be salvaged through embryo culture.
v) Micropropagation of triploid watermelon through induction of multiple shoots from seedling tips has been achieved : In vitro propagation of tratraploid and diploid parental lines of watermelon to facilitate large scale production of 3n watermelon seeds is being carried out.
vi) In potato, the technique for transfer of genes through Agrobacterium strain C58-PB1121 has been standardized and production of transgenic plants has been confirmed by the GUS assay. Genetic engineering targets to introduce CP genetic engineering targets to introduce CP gene (for virus resistance) and BT gene (for insect resistance potato) have been set by the Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), India.
 

B. Propagation :

Vegetable Seed Production for over 120 open pollinated high yielding varieties of different vegetable crops has stabilised well in the country. The open seed policy of the Government of India has encouraged the entry of many corporate firms in the seed business. Hybrid seed production has become easier due to development of self incompatible lines in cauliflower and gynoecious lines in crops like cucumber and musk melon. In tomato male sterile lines are used for hybrid seed production. Similarly in brinjal functional male sterility controlled by single recessive gene has been reported. The supply of breeders' seed of most of the vegetables are normally carried over by the research institutions who have developed them. The foundation and certified seeds are produced by public funded seed corporations and private seed companies. Many joint ventures for production and distribution of vegetable seeds have recently come up as a result of liberalised seed policy. Indian has achieved self sufficiency in seeds of temperate vegetables and has started exporting them.

In potato, a new technique known as 'seed plot technique' which makes use of low aphid population periods for growing disease-free seedstocon periods for growing disease-free seedstocks of potato, has brought revolution in production of potato seed tubers in north Indian plains. The Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) of India caters to the need of total breeder-seed requirements of potato of the entire country and is producing about 2500 tonnes every year. The 'True Potato Seed' (TPS) technology has been standardised as an alternative and TPS lines are in cultivation with a yield potential of about 30 t/ha. In onion, also seed production technology has been standardised.
 

C. Pest -Diseases and Plant Protection :

About 50 recommendations for disease managements and 23 improved measures in vegetable pest control have been advocated for efficient management of diseases and pests of vegetable crops. Integrated pest managements (IPM) for control of diamond back moth of cabbage through use of trap crops like mustard have been demonstrated. IPM practice for control of tomato fruit borer include intercropping a tall variety of marigold as a trap crop in a row after every 14 rows of tomato. The marigold attracts Helicoverpa and large number of its natural enemies. At a few places control of fruit borer H. armigera in tomato could also be achieved by release of Trichogramma pretiosum alone @ 0.5 million/ha and in combination with Ha-NPV @ 250 LE/ha. IPM research is in under good progress in many vegetable crops inclgood progress in many vegetable crops including potato. In potato, deadly diseases like late blight, bacterial wilt and insects like aphids and nematodes could be effectively controlled through use of tolerant varieties as well as chemical control measures. Resistant breeding both in a number of vegetable crops and potato has greatly helped in overcoming disease and pest problems in these crops.
 

D. Integrated Production Systems :

Production technology especially water management, integrated nutrient management, weed control, population density and others have been developed in all the major vegetable crops.

1. Pendimethalin (stomp) was found very effective in controlling weeds in all Solanaceous (tomato, brinjal, chilli, bell pepper, okra) vegetables.

1. In tomato and brinjal drip irrigation was found very economical. For cucumber replenishing 120% of evaporation loss through irrigation resulted in maximum yield of quality fruit. Drip irrigation in water melon gives 33% more yield, with water saving of 40%.

1. Nutrient requirement and fertilizer scheduling works have been conducted for different agro-climatic regions and cropwise recommendations have been published for different regions. In leguminous vegetables high N depresses nodulation. Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) increases available P to the plants. Glomus aggrega(VAM) increases available P to the plants. Glomus aggregatum is best in promoting growth and yield of pea and beans, whereas G. fasciculatum is best for cowpea. In all leguminous vegetables a dual inoculation of VAM alongwith Rhizobium culture was found to be beneficial.

1. Production technologies for rainy season (kharif) onion for northern India and long day type onions for high altitudes have been standardised. Usually, onion is grown in the winter season (rabi) in the northern India, while it is grown both in rabi and kharif in major onion growing states like Maharashtra (19% area),Gujarat (17%), Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The recommended doses of nutrients by different states are 100-150 kg nitrogen, 40-80 kg phosphorus and 0-125 kg potato/ha. Weeds can be effectively controlled by Tenoran @ 2.5 kg/ha when applied 3-5 weeks after transplanting. Stomp @ 3.5 litres/ha applied immediately after transplanting is also effective.

1. In cole crops (cabbage, cauliflowers) with the introductions of heat-tolerant hybrids and development of tropical lines of hybrids, the temperature barrier has been removed. It is therefore possible now to cultivate cabbage and cauliflower in southern India. Under tropical climate with an average yield of 70 t/ha cabbage requires 370 kg N, 85 kg P, 480 kg K, 60 kg Mgo and 80 kg S/ ha. Preplanting applications of weedicides Triflkg S/ ha. Preplanting applications of weedicides Trifluralin (1 kg/ ha), Butachlor ( 2 kg/ha) were found to be effective for controlling weeds in cabbage and cauliflower fields.

1. In potato, drip irrigation was found to be economical, giving highest productivity and saving about 50% water. Biofertilizers Azotobacter and phosphobacteria enabled the reduction of N dose by 16% and P dose by 30%.

 

E. Economics and Marketing :

More than 40 kinds of vegetables, belonging to different groups, namely, solanaceous, cucurbitaceous, bulb and roots, cole crops, vegetable legumes and leafy vegetables are grown in the country. India occupies first position in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the world. In a country like India, where marginal and small farmers predominate the peasantry, vegetable farming is highly economical. Technological innovations and vegetable hybrids have given tremendous boost to vegetable growers. In certain crops like tomato, throughout the year cropping has become possible due to availability of cold set and hotset varieties, and it has also become possible to establish sound tomato processing industry due to production of suitable processing varieties with high productivity. Post harvest technology in certain crops like potato, onion, tomato, peas and others have been perfected and are within easy reach of the average gperfected and are within easy reach of the average growers. Out of the vegetable crops maximum export potential remains with onion and potato, seasonal vegetables and high value crops like beans, peas, green chilli, broccoli, asparagus, mushroom, capsicum, lettuce etc., also enjoy good scope. Less pungent white/yellow varieties of onion possess good demand in European markets. Although India exports considerable quantity of onions, level of production and prices prevailing within the country cause hindrances in promoting export on large scale.

India has the potential of becoming major exporter of both ware and seed potatoes. There is a great potential of exporting processed potato also. It is estimated that presently only 0.5% of the potato production of the country is processed.

The potato productivity in India (1.80/ha/day) is better than that of Western Europe (1.56 q/ha). Certain Indian states like Gujarat and West Bengal with 2.73 q/ha/day and 2.56 q/ha/day compare well with Netherlands with average productivity of 2.51 q/ha/day. More than 80% of Indian potato is grown in the winter months when there is no potato crop in the Western temperate countries. India, therefore,is favourably placed so far potato production and marketing is concerned.

Intensive research and entry of many corporate firms in vegetable seed business has contributed to the growth of vegetable industry tremendously. Vegetable seed business is another area ly. Vegetable seed business is another area where India may do well. Study made by Agro-Economic Research Centres in selected towns and cities show that rate of consumption of fruits and vegetables in the country are on the rise. Also, in vegetables alone demand for processing and export is approximately 4 million tonnes. Without discounting post harvest loss total demand of about 130 million tonnes of vegetables has been projected for the country for the year 2002, showing ample scope of vegetable farming in the country.

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3. ORNAMENTAL CROPS

Floriculture Industry : current status

India has a long tradition of floriculture. In most part of the country, flower growing is carried out on small holdings and commercial floriculture has assumed importance only in the recent past. Based on the information available, it is estimated that about 70 thousand ha is covered under flowers for cut-flower use. Another about 500 ha of climatically controlled greenhouses are reported to be available for growing quality flowers for export.

Traditional flowers like marigold, jasmine, aster, rose, chrysanthemum, crossandra etc. are grown in more than two third area under flowers, while modern day cut flowers with stems e.g. rose, carnation, gladiolus, tuberose, orchids etc. occupy rest of the area.

The domestic flower market is not well organised. A market survestic flower market is not well organised. A market survey conducted in 1988-89 indicated flower trade worth Rs. 2050 million, while a recent survery for Delhi market alone indicated a trade around Rs. 500 million. In addition to cutflower use, ornamental plants are now increasingly in demand for interior decoration and landscape use. Flower seed production and multiplication of planting materials are also in the increase. Several flower seed producing companies have set up production facilities in India for targetting domestic as well as export markets. Some of these companies took up custom production of specific varieties for their clients abroad. More than 30 commercial micropropagation units with production capacity exceeding 40 million plants have been set up. Flowers and ornamental crops are the major product range in these units. Tissue culture raised plants of carnation and gerbera already gained popularity with flower growers. Production of bulbs/tubers of crops like gladiolus, lilliums, tulips, liatrice is also picking up fast.
 

In the recent past a good number of export oriented floriculture units have been established in the country. By December 1996, more than 200 such units have been approved to be set up, which include 157 units with foreign collaboration and direct foreign investment. The total investment in this sector is approximately Rs. 1000 million. The flowers exported from these units are receiving consumers acrom these units are receiving consumers acceptance for high quality. A good number of such export oriented units with greenhouse production have been set up in clusters around Pune (Maharashtra State), Bangalore (Karnataka State), Delhi State and Hybderabad (Andha Pradesh State). Ornamental foliage plants of decorative value are also been exported in sizable quantity. The natural extracts of certain flowers have good demand and concretes of jasmine, tuberose and rose are produced. Dry flowers and plants trade is a comparatively new venture in India and is gaining popularity. Presently, most of the dry products are exported to Germany, USA, Netherlands, U.K., Italy and Japan. Such products constitute nearly 60 percent of Indias exports of floriculture products at present.
 

RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS :

A. Crop Improvement :

More than 300 varieties of different ornamental crops have been developed and recommended for release. These include 57 varieties in roses, 35 in chrysanthemum, 42 in gladiolus, 150 in bougainvillea, 25 in hibiscus and 2 hybrids in orchids. In addition to these a number of varieties in annual ornamental crops have also been developed.

In more recent years, rose varieties namely Benjamin Pal, Nurjahan, Raktagandha, 'Banjaran', Sindhoor, Chrysanthemum varieties Ajay, Sonali, Swarna, Ravi Kiran, Akash, Yellow Start, Chandrakand and gladiolusAkash, Yellow Start, Chandrakand and gladiolus varieties, Kumkum, Rangoli, Darshan, Tambi and Rim Jhim were released for cultivation. Rose rootstock Rosa indica var. odorata is now widely used. In rose, most of the varieties released fall under Hybrid Tea and Floribunda groups. There is a dearth of climbing varieties.

Three chrysanthemum mutants gave higher yields. Gladiolus hybrid 77-59-32 with large spike and many florets per spike was developed for export of cut flowers. In gladiolus, new triploid hybrids have been developed and open pollinated (O.P) selections are doing well. New IARI (New Delhi) varieties of gladiolus, bougainvillea, hollyhock and coreopsis have become popular in many parts of the country. Gladiolus varieties Mayur, Suchitra and Pusa Suhagan have become popular in Northern India. The O.P. selections namely, Jwala, Gazal and Priyadarshini are also gaining popularity.

For South Indian conditions, good number of varieties of different ornamental crops have been released by the IIHR, Bangalore. Some of the important ones are :

1. Chrysanthemum : Red Gold variety with about 290 flowers per plant with a vase life of 10 days and other varieties like Indira and Rakhee have been released.

1. Gladiolus : Shobha, Aspara, Nazrana, Sapna, Poonam, Meera released for cultivation.

1. ra released for cultivation.

1. Hibiscus : Out of 21 varieties released, Chitralekha, Phulkari, Ratna, Red Satur, Shanti, Smt. Indira Gandhi, Alkta, Anuradha, Ashirwad, Bharat Sundari, Dilruba, Geetanjali, Tribal Queen are important.

1. Bougainvillea : Six varieties named and released. Important ones are Dr. H.B. Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru, Usha, Purple Wonder.

Traditional flowers like jasmine, tuberose, marigold and others also received research attention. In jasmine breeding, high yield of flowerbuds spread throughout the year and high oil productivity were the major objectives.

Three varieties of J. auriculatum and 2 varieties of J. grandiforum have been released. A high yielding clonal selection, namely Surabhi has been released recently. In tuberose, Rajat Rekha and Swarna Rekha are gamma ray induced mutants. In marigold, F₁ hybrids are highly floriferous.
 

B. Propagation :

Tissue culture protocols for micropropagation of large number of flowering and ornamental plants have been developed. In addition to rose, bougainvillea, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, amaryllis, petunia, orchids. Anthuriums, propagation in Ficus elastica, Monstera deliciosa, Cordyline terminalis, Begonia rex, Peperomia obtusifoha and Philodendron Pink Princess has also been reported to be successful.rincess has also been reported to be successful.

Research on various other methods of propagation has resulted high percentage of rooting in about 300 species. Also promising rootstocks in case of crop like rose have been identified. Rosa indica var. odorata performed well under Delhi condition. Seeds of annual and seasonal flowers are produced in the country by various seed companies and indegenous seed production is considerable. India exports flower seeds of Gaillardia, Zinnia, Chrysanthemum annual, Cosmos, Helichrysum, Candytuft, Mirabilis and a few other in substantial quantity. F₁ Hybrid seeds of Petunia has been exported since 1967 and there is good scope to produce hybrid seeds of Antirrhinum, Geranium, Impatiens and Marigold. In hill stations of India, namely Srinagar, Darjeeling, Sikkim and Kalingpong good quality bulbs of gladiolus, and lillies are produced. In gladioli alone about 4.5 to 5 million bulbs are produced annually in Darjeeling hills and Sikkim in the eastern India.
 

C. Pest Diseases and Plant Protection :

Research work on diagnosis and control of viral diseases in carnation, chrysanthemum, dahlia, gladiolus, hollyhock, petunia, zinnia and others has resulted in multiplication healthy planting materials and the control of the diseases. Gladiolus has been cleaned from BYMV. In tuberose, integration of mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi like Glamus mossae and Glamus mossae and G. fasciculatum with neem cake gave effective control of root-knot nematode. Considerable research information on control of different fungal diseases are available and commercial floriculture units are following both preventive and curative chemical control measures. Work on bacterial and fungal plugging of rose stem resulting to reduction of water uptake of cut roses showed that bacteria like Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Aeromonas Erwinia, Corynebacteria are predominant in vase water. The predominant fungal species isolated from vase water are Botrytis cineria, Fusarium oxysporum, Mucor, Penicillium and Rhizopus. Use of biocide like streptomycin sulphate in vase water was found to control bacteria in cut flowers. Fungicide like Coptan and bacteriocide like streptopenicillin showed positive response in lengthening the life of cut roses of cv. Queen Elizabeth.
 

D. Integrated Production System :

Nutritional requirements of all the major flowering plants have been standardised. Rose plants when pruned at 45 cm height from ground level retaining 4 healthy shoots resulted in maximum flowering. In north India best time of pruning is October-November, just before the severe winter cold. In chrysanthemum, photo-induction requirements for prolonged blooming have been worked out. The varieties could be classified into 7 response groups basd be classified into 7 response groups based on their period of blooming.

In jasmine, for maximum yield of flowers and high recovery of essential oil, a planting distance of 1.8 X 1.8 m and pruning plants at 90 cm height are essential. Also, the plants must receive 100 g N, 150 g P₂O₅ and 100 g K₂O/plant each year. In tuberose, preplanting treatments of bulbs with GA₃ increased rachis length, while in marigold spraying of cycocel on transplanted plants resulted better flowering.

Green house cultivation of flowers, particularly roses, has increased considerably in more recent years. Most of these green house units are growing roses for export with foreign technology. Major foreign collaborations are with Holland and Israel. Greenhouse production has brought in uses of drips, micro sprinklers and other advanced irrigation systems. Liquid fertilizers and newer plant protection chemicals are also being used increasingly. Indegenous technology for greenhouse production is lacking and only limited information of greenhouse cultivation of chrysanthemum, gladiolus and Sini carnation have been reported. Successful growing of roses in north India under modified environment using plastic cover during winter months (November-February) has also been reported.
 

E. Post Harvest Managements :

Preharvest practices and post harvest treatments for improving tices and post harvest treatments for improving longevity of different cut flowers have been largely standardised. It has been established that the post harvest behaviour of flowers is an outcome of the physiological processes occurring in the leaves, stem, the flower bud, the leafless peduncle or scape connecting the bud to the stem. Mineral nutrition, foliar feeding, irrigation and growth regulator sprays were found to influence longevity and post harvest quality of cut flowers. It has been reported that tap water improved vase life of cut roses (cv. Super Star) over distilled water. A holding solution of PH 3.0 improved post harvest life of cut roses. Addition of different kinds of sugars in holding solutions influenced vase life of rose variety Raktagandha. D-fractose at 4% gave maximum vase life, while mannose reduced the vase life of rose. In the same variety of rose a holding solution of D-fractose (1%) and boric acid (500 ppm) + Cobalt Chloride (250 ppm) was the best for opening tight but fully mature buds.

Pre-cooling flowers to optimal storage temperature is important for longer storing of flowers. In tube rose cool storage of florets, both in packed and unpacked forms, helped in maintaining freshness and white colour for longer period. Packaging of Jasminum sambac flowers in 200 gauge polyethylene bags without ventilation maintained freshness, retained white colour and helped in prolonging shelf-life by 3 days. Roped in prolonging shelf-life by 3 days. Roses could be stored dry upto a maximum period of 2 weeks at a storage temperature of 0.5 to 3^o C.

For several ornamental species, dehydration techniques of fresh flowers, retaining their shape and natural colour have been standardised.
 

F. Economics and Marketing :

The floriculture industry in India covers trade of i) cutflowers ii) nursery and potted plants, seeds and bulbs iii) micropropagated plants and iv) essential oils from flowers for perfumes. Plant rental services for supply of house plants on annual rent basis is also available in big cities. It is estimated that annual growth rate of domestic trade of floriculture products is about 25-30 per cent. In domestic market, consumption of flowers in the southern states is much higher than in the northern region. A study conducted in south Indian (Madras) market showed that for jasmine only 31 to 36 per cent of consumers' price goes to the growers. In case of roses, however, about 50 per cent of consumers price is realised by the growers. Analysis of composition of cost price of rose show that labour, propagating material, fuel and materials cover 33, 26, 26, and 4 percent respectively.

The demand for flower extracts for perfume trade is growing. The natural concretes of jasmine, tuberose and rose are produced in large quantity. Although little innovations have come in processing proc little innovations have come in processing procedures in designing of steam distillation plants, significant changes have taken place. Out of the total global production of about 10 tonnes of jasmine concrete in 1990, India's share was approximately 2.4 tonnes. The flowers of an improved jasmine variety namely Pitchi yield 0.29 percent recovery of concrete in laboratory scale testing and 0.25 percent in commercial production. Another improved variety Arka Surabhi yields about 0.35 per cent concrete.

In rose, R. damascena (damisk rose) produce high grade concrete, whereas R. Centiflolia and R. borboniana are utilised for production of rose water and gulkand industry. The quality of concrete from new rose variety Noorjehan is claimed to be superior, which has 53 per cent rhodinol (licitronellol) against 45.7 per cent in damisk rose oil. Laboratory scale distillation apparatus with double cooling system to ensure complete condensation of vapours has been developed and patented. The floral concretes of many other flowers are expected to be available in near future. The flowers of Champaka (Michalia champaca) yield 0.06 per cent volatile oil on steam distillation and produces 0.26 per cent of concrete through solvent extraction. The concrete has phynylmethol alcohol, benzaldehyde and methyl anthrainlate as major aroma component. Floral extracts are likely to be important items for future and thly to be important items for future and this sector has considerable potential, both for domestic and export market. Dry flowers and plants are also comparatively new products of good potential. Some commercial units for production of value added products like collages and flower pictures, flower balls, cards and covers, pomanders, festive decorations sweet smelling pot-pouries etc. have been established both in eastern and southern India.

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4. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS :

History and Present Status :

Medicinal and aromatic plants play an important role in Indian traditional medicines. The commercial scale cultivation of such plants are, however, of recent origin. Certain species like saffron, opium poppy, psyllium or isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk ) are some of the crops which are under cultivation for many years. Opium poppy is perhaps the first exotic species brought under cultivation in the later part of sixteenth century through introduction from West Asia. It is one of the cultivated crops where the selection pressure has played a major role in developing new varieties and land races. Cinchona and ipecac were introduced in India mainly to fight menace of malaria and diarrhoea respectively, while crops like belladona, ergot, pyrethrum, henbane and fox-globe were introduced in India during second World War when there was a serious disruption in World War when there was a serious disruption in the supply of raw materials for certain vital drugs. Lemon grass, oil-bearing rose and celery were introduced both for meeting the local use and export demands.

Certain crops like mints, French jasmine, Java citronella and hops introduced in late forties to early fifties have now become successful commercial crops. They are largely used in flourishing chemical industries entering export trade. Aromatic plants like Palmarosa-oil grass, French basil, asgandh and vetiver are now well established commercially. India has done fairly well in export of psyllium husk and seed, mint oil, menthol, jasmine concrete and neam oil.

A very large number of native species available in Indian forests have been used for a long time for their medicinal properties. It is reported that over 2000 native plant species have curative properties and about 1300 species are known for their aroma and flavour. The Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) locally known as Ayurved, Unani and Siddha drugs are of great demand in the country-side and it is estimated that such plant based drugs worth Rs.8000 million are produced annually under the ISM. There is already a spurt in demand of plant based drugs and lately many such native species of medicinal values are being brought under systematic cultivation.

Research in medicinal and aromatic crops are mainly carried out by the Indian Council of Agriinly carried out by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) of the Council of Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR), both public funded research organisations. The ICAR through its All India Coordinated Research Project on Medicinal Plants (begun in 1972) is carrying out an integrated multidisciplinary research at 9 centres on 12 mandatory crops : psyllium, senna, opium poppy, periwinkle, liquorice, asgandh, jasmine, palmarosa, lemongrass, vetiver, geranium and patchonli. In addition, performance testing of a good number of exotic crops and domestication of certain native species are also in the research agenda of ICAR. Research on crops like Solanum viarum Rauvolfia serpentina, Dioscorea floribunda, Mentha arvensis, M. spicata, basil, lavender, henbare and others have also been conducted by various agencies. The CIMAP (CSIR) is working on the industrial utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants.
 

Research Achievements :

A. Plant Improvement :

In the last two decades a large number of improved varieties have been developed - 21 in medicinal plants and 27 in aromatic plants. In opium poppy breeding efforts have led to an array of new high yielding varieties in recent years. In psyllium and senna available genetic base is narrow, whereas in Rauvolfia, Periwinkle (CatharanthusRauvolfia, Periwinkle (Catharanthus) and asgandh (Wathania somnifera) wide range of variations in growth, yield and contents has been recorded in the available germplasm. In periwinckle a few selections (EC 120837, IC 49581) have been made for higher root and alkaloid yield. In asgandh, some promising selections and hybrids have been identified. A large variation in basil, cymbopogan grasses and vetiver germplasm has been recorded. Amongst native species, germplasm variability in neem (Azadiracta indica) is of great importance. Interspecific hybridization has been successful in opium-poppy, belladona, foxglove, lemon grass (using Cymbopogon Khasianum) and asgandh. Polyploidy could be successfully induced in psyllium, opium poppy, belladona, dioscorea, rauvolfia, mints and periwinckle. Not much work on resistance breeding could, however, be done. Breeding in Isabgol for resistance to mildew disease and evolving high oil yielding cultures of scented geranium and patchouli combining resistance to wilt and nematodes respectively are priority research items. Research efforts to domesticate plants like Swertia, Piper, Guggal (Commiphora wightii), Safed Musli (Chlorophytum spp.), Aloes (A.barbadenis Mill) etc. have been initiated.
 

B. Propagation :

Seed research in medicinal and aromatic plants is almost absent. Low seed set, poor seed viability, high dormanceed set, poor seed viability, high dormancy and low percentage of seed germination are some of the problems. Seed set is extremely poor in safed musli, seed losses viability soon in neem, seed germination is poor in swertia. Availability of quality seed of improved varieties is a constrain. Although tissue culture protocols in crops like safed musli, guggal, liquorice, patchouli and others have been reported, none of them have been commercially adopted due to poor field establishment of plantlets.
 

C. Integrated Production Systems :

Crop production technologies have been standardised for the important crops. Cropping systems involving vetiver, palmarosa, opium poppy, psyllium, senna and rauvolfia have been accepted as an intercrop in coconut gardens. Studies have shown that Japanese mint, steroidal yam, Java citronella, patchouli and opium poppy are high-nutrient and irrigation-responsive crops, whereas psyllium, asgandh, liquorice, rauvolfia and senna have extremely low nutrient requirements and can be grown with low irrigation. The rest of the crops fall in between these two extremes. Crops like lemon grass and asgandh are grown as rainfed crop, while limited irrigation is provided to senna, palmarosa and vetiver. Palmarosa and henbane responded well to Azotobacter cultures, when used in seed treatment and drilled in soil rows as slurry. Nitrogen fertilization could be reduced in psylliu fertilization could be reduced in psyllium fields where leguminous crops, like cowpea and clusterbeans were grown earlier. Also, intercropping of leguminous crops, improved nitrogen use efficiency in steroidal yam. Patchouli and Piper longum can be grown successfully under semi-shaddy conditions (25-50% shade) in irrigated coconut gardens.
 

D. Economics and Marketing :

The global market for plant based pharmaceuticals in 1994 was estimated to range between 32 to 43 billion US $. Also, there is a growing demand of herbal medicine for markets of industrially developed countries for alternatives to abstract medicines, antibiotics, steroids and hormonal drugs, which have shown rise in side effects on body functions. The essential oil market is also growing, mainly as food flavours and as fragnances. However, unlike other commercial crops, medicinal and aromatic plant based industry very often goes for searching new, more potent, safer and cheaper sources of raw materials, as a result of which there is uncertainly in the minds of growers about economic returns. Inspite of such uncertainties, quite a good number of medicinal and aromatic plants have established their value in diversification and value addition in agriculture sector of the country. It has significantly added in export of value added products in the form of intermediary phytochemicals, perfumery, food flavour, cosmetics and toiletry gry, food flavour, cosmetics and toiletry goods. Plant based drugs of antimalarial, anti-cancer, hepato-protective, anti-diabetics, sedatives etc. are in different stages of development and offer huge market opportunities. Standards of raw materials for purity, potency and quality need to be worked out and post harvest storage and processing must be standardised for better marketing of medicinal and aromatic plants.

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Research Investment and Pay-off :

Horticulture research as planned activities received very little attention till the III (1965-70) Five Year Plan, although systematic research on fruits, vegetables and ornamental crops was initiated when a separate section of horticulture was created in the Division of Botany of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) during 1954. Upgradation of this section to a separate Division of Horticulture in 1959, establishment of the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research in Bangalore in 1968, starting of 8 All India Co-ordinated Research Projects (AICRP) on different horticultural crops during IV Plan (1970-75) and creation of a separate Division of Horticulture at the ICAR Hqrs. during 1985-86 are some of the important landmarks in the history of horticulture research in the country. Today 8 ICAR Institutes with 27 Regional Stations, 1 Project Directorate, 10 National Research Centres, 15 AICRPs with 215 Centres, 1 full fledged UniversiPs with 215 Centres, 1 full fledged University on Horticulture, 25 State Agricultural Universities, 7 multi-disciplinary Institutes of ICAR (IARI, New Delhi with 3 Divisions; VPKAS,Almora; NBPGR,New Delhi; CARI,Port Blair; CAZRI,Jodhpur; CWR&TI,Dehradun & the ICAR Research Complex for NEH, Barapani) are engaged in horticulture research.

The research system in the country is now fully geared to provide necessary technological support to the expanding horticulture industry of the country. Our production of fruits and vegetables had tripled over the last 50 years and with proper R&D support it should be possible to meet the needs of domestic as well as the export markets in next 5 years.

Plan expenditure on horticultural crops started in the fourth plan (1970-75) with a modest allocation of Rs. 34.78 million which was enhanced to Rs.319.56 million in the seventh plan (1975-80) and to Rs.1,047 million in the eighth plan (1992-97). The increase in investment from the seventh to eighth plan is about 213%. Rapid expansion in research infrastructure has been witnessed in the seventh and eighth plan. The R&D set up in horticulture has expanded quite rapidly through the establishment of SAUs, State Department of Horticulture, CRIs and NRCs of the ICAR, strengthening of Coordinated project system and cess fund adhoc projects. Private investment in R&D has also been experienced increasingly in the more recent past.

Currently, there are seven research programmes under operation of the Horticulture Division of the ICAR. The percentage increase in budgetary provision under each of the programme during VIII Plan over the expenditure of VII Plan is as follows :

Fruits - 373%, vegetables - 500%, Root & Tuber crops - 240%, Plantation Crops - 273%, Spices - 400%, Floriculture, Medicinal & Aromatic Plants - 406%, Post-Harvest Technology - 400%.

The research budgets of 12 Institutes of the Horticulture Division of the ICAR for the year 1995 have been shown in Table.1. It may be seen that out of the total annual budget of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research 8.70 per cent was spent for implementation of horticulture research programme. The ratio of scientific, technical and administrative manpower works out approximately as 1:1.23:0.70, meaning thereby that the research scientists get reasonably good support from technical and administrative staff. Out of the 12 institutions, only 4 of them received external funding, ranging from 7.98 to 13.0 percent of their internal research budget.

The research output per scientist in terms of research publications has been shown in Table.2. Although the old and established institutes (CPRI, Shimla; IIHR, Bangalore) have more number of research publications, per scientist basis output is much better in smaller and new institutes (NRC for Mushroom, Sller and new institutes (NRC for Mushroom, Solan; IISR, Calicut; PDVR, Varanasi). The mandate crops of IISR, Calicut are spice crops, (both perennial and seasonal) whereas the PDVR, Varanasi deals with seasonal vegetable crops. Institutes dealing with perennial fruit crops like CISH, Lucknow (mango) and NRC for Arid Horticulture (arid fruits) have got much less share of research publications to their credit, while new (2yrs old) institute like NRC for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants could not open their account so far.

Commoditywise, vegetable crops enjoy maximum scientific manpower and budgetary support (Table.3). Vegetable Crops being mostly seasonal, research achievements and the transfer of technology are much faster in comparison to the perennial tree crops. As indicated earlier, in the last 3 decades India made quantum jump in vegetable production from 28.36 million in 1967-71 to 68.7 millions in 1994-95. The technology generated in the vegetable crops have gone to a large extent to the farmers resulting to such spectacular increase in production.

Pay offs from the public sector expenditure in agricultural research in India is considered to be quite high, although public sector investment in agriculture research had all along been very average, if not low. Horticulture research is no exception and investment in horticulture research has paid good dividents. The fall in capital spending and decline in advance training of reding and decline in advance training of researchers will hamper the efficiency of the research system greatly. Modernisation and diversification needs of Indian horticulture should essentially be addressed by the Indian NARS. Private Sector partnership will be essential for diversification, value addition and exports to make horticulture more profitable in the coming years. Private Sector investment in terms of contract research, collaborative research, consultancy and other forms may be needed for establishing demand driven relationships with organised commercial sectors. Public funded research system will, however, have to continue to provide quality research inputs to the large, unorganised, small holder farm sectors to improve the productivity and quality of horticultural commodities in years to come.
 

FUTURE STRATEGY :

Overall development of horticulture in the country would require substantial improvement in the productivity and quality of the produce and reduction of post harvest loss of perishable commodity through better handling and organised marketing. Since the scope for expansion of area is limited, further growth of horticulture industry and its sustainability will largely depend on the new and emerging technologies. Strong support of basic and strategic research in conjunction with conventional technologies will only enable rapid growth. For enlarging the scope of basic and strategic reseging the scope of basic and strategic research establishment of programme based linkages and partnerships with other sister research organisations and Private Sector is unavoidable. Private participation for value addition, processing, micropropagation, greenhouse floriculture, hybrid seed production, post harvest managements of fruits & vegetables and similar other areas should be possible. Commodity and discipline dominated research programmes need to be reoriented to resource/system based research for which strong linkage with state level institutions, SAUs in particular is essential. Taking the advantage of varied agro-ecological regimes, the counterseasonal advantages must be exploited fully, for which generation of location specific technology is a must. Networking research arrangements covering mainly the ICAR institutes and SAUs with mission mode approach should pay better dividends. Human Resource development in the areas like horticulture crop biotechnology, IPM, IPNM, biofertilisers, biopesticides, micro-irrigation and fertigation, green house technolgy, pesticide residue, PHT, product development and byproduct utilization needs priority attention for successful implementation of research programmes in emerging areas. Also manpower development activities need to be supported for creating professional cadre for implementing and monitoring horticulture developmental programmes of different state governments. The research systemstate governments. The research system should also provide necessary training support to entrepreneurs for enhancement of skills for various agri-business activities.

Keeping the above strategy in view, the following thrust areas of research identified for the 9th Plan Period (1997-2002).

1. Development of improved varieties/hybrids of fruits, vegetables, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic plants with high production potential, biotic and abiotic resistance and suitable for export. Emphasis will also be on indegenous minor fruits and seed spices.

1. Development of appropriate horticultural based cropping systems for different agroclimatic areas. Production technology, for matching export requirements and diversified use.

1. Research on efficient water management including micro-irrigation and fertigation.

1. Post-harvest technology including value-addition and product diversification of important fruits and vegetables.

1. Protected cultivation for export-oriented vegetables and flowers.

1. Developing rapid tools, biotechniques and technologies for genetic manipulations for introducing desirable traits of yield, quality and stress tolerance. Micropropagation of important horticultural crops for mass multiplication of quality planting materials.

1. Advancor mass multiplication of quality planting materials.

1. Advanced research on national disease problem such as mango malformation, guava wilt, citrus decline, spongy tissue in mango, root wilt in coconut, Phytophthora diseases of different horticultural crops.

1. Floriculture research for quality production of cut-flowers, post-production handling and transportation of floricultural products.

1. Integrated management of nutrients, diseases and pests of important horticultural crops to reduce input costs, environmental pollution and to avoid pesticide-residue problems.

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