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U.G. Menini
Chief, Seed and Plant Genetic Resources
Chief, Seed and Plant Genetic Resources Service
Plant Production and Protection Division
FAO
This paper has been developed on the basis of existing FAO documentation
and, in some instances, by collating information extracted from
documents prepared during the last 10 years for the FAO Commission
on Genetic Resources and various other FAO technical meetings
related to the conservation and utilisation of plant genetic resources
for food and agriculture. Although some of the considerations
developed in this paper might seem to address issues of a general
character, they are nonetheless quite applicable to horticultural
genetic resources. The document should be regarded as an approach
intended to stimulate reflection during the elaboration of a global
research policy for the development and improvement of horticultural
production through the conservation and best use of horticultural
genetic diversity.
Biodiversity is a popular way of describing the diversity of life
on earth: it includes all life forms and the ecosystems of which
they are a part. Biodiversity forms the foundation for sustainable
development. It is the basis for the environmental health of our
planet and a source of economic and ecological security for future
generations. In the deveic and ecological security for future
generations. In the developing world, biodiversity provides the
assurance of food, countless raw materials such as fibre for clothing,
materials for shelter, fertilisers, fuel and medicines, as well
as source of work energy in the form of animal traction.
The rural poor depend upon biological resources for an estimated
90% of their needs. In the industrialised world, access to diverse
biological resources is necessary to support a vast array of industrial
products. In the continuing drive to develop efficient and sustainable
agriculture for many different conditions, these resources provide
raw material for plant and animal breeding, as well as for the
new biotechnologies.
Genetic diversity in agriculture enables crops and animals to
adapt to different environments and growing conditions. The ability
of a particular variety to withstand drought or inundation, grow
in poor or rich soil, resist one of the many insect pests or diseases,
give higher protein yields or produce a better-tasting food are
traits passed on naturally by its genes. This genetic material
constitutes the raw material that plant and animal breeders and
biotechnologists use to produce new varieties and breeds. Without
this diversity we would lose the ability to adapt to ever-changing
needs and conditions. Sustainable agriculture could not then be
achieved in many of the world's different food production environments.
fferent food production environments.
Diversity among individual plants and animals, species and ecosystems
provides the raw material that enables human communities to adapt
to change - now and in the future. Deprived of biodiversity, the
ability of humankind to meet the challenges resulting, for example,
from climate change would be severely limited. The diversity found
within the small number of plant and animal species which form
the basis of world agriculture and food production remains a small
but vital part of the earth's biodiversity.
Genetic diversity is not evenly distributed throughout the world;
it is in fact concentrated in tropical and sub-tropical areas,
where the majority of developing countries are located. Plant
genetic resources are of an inestimable value, and will continue
to be so in the future, independently of whether scientists use
them by means of conventional plant breeding or modern genetic
engineering. The importance of plant genetic resources as the
ultimate source of food is enormous. Their loss constitutes a
serious threat to world food security. The conservation of genetic
resources goes far beyond the salvation of species. The objective
must be to conserve sufficient diversity within each species to
ensure that its genetic potential will be fully available in the
future.
Within the Plant Kingdom, around 350,000 species have been classified,
out of which about 80,000 have beenlassified,
out of which about 80,000 have been found to be edible. In the
course of history, mankind has utilised about 7,000 of these plant
species for food. Today, only 150 plant species are cultivated
and of these, the so-called major crops can be contemplated in
about 30 plant species which are producing about 95% of the world's
calories and proteins. About 75% of food consumption comes from
only 12 plant species and 5 animal species. Half of this food
comes from only 4 plant species (rice, maize, wheat and potato)
and 3 major animal species (cattle, swine and poultry).
Over millennia, men and women farmers have developed within each
domesticated food species thousands of landraces (farmers varieties)
and breeds adapted to local conditions and needs. This "humanmade"
agrobiodiversity is now seriously endangered.
Today the world population amounts to about 5 billion people.
An increase of about 60% is expected in the next thirty years,
which will bring the world population to some 8 billion people.
Today, 800 million people are chronically malnourished. On the
basis of recent estimates, in the developing countries alone,
food production will need to increase by about 60% in the next
25-30 years in order to keep pace with the expected demographic
growth.
Biodiversity maintains the ecological balance necessary for planetary
and human ecological balance necessary for planetary
and human survival. Biological resources are renewable resources,
but they are being exploited at rates that exceed their sustainable
yield. Human destruction of habitats, whether exploited for commercial
or subsistence reasons, is the greatest threat.
The clearing of land for agriculture, overgrazing of grasslands,
cutting and burning of forests, unsustainable logging and fuel
wood collection, indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides,
over-watering of crops, overexploitation of fisheries, draining
and filling of wetlands, poor water management, urbanisation and
pollution of air and water, all figure prominently as causes of
the degradation of our biological resources.
Genetic erosion is a term often used to describe the reduction
of diversity within a species and, as the main cause of species
extinction, it is a global threat to agriculture. If the individuals
we conserve from any one species contain only a small fraction
of the total species gene pool, then their ability to adapt to
changing circumstances in the future will be severely limited.
Genetic erosion is usually the loss of genetic diversity as a
result of social, economic agricultural changes. UNCED's Agenda
21 states that 'the current decline in biodiversity is largely
the result human activity and represents a serious threat to human
development'. This statement is also applicable to erosion
of genetic ment is also applicable to erosion
of genetic resources for food and agriculture.
In modern agriculture, food habits, and hence crops, have often
been introduced and spread by dominant cultures without necessarily
taking into account local environmental conditions, or the needs
of local communities. The introduction of bread in many parts
of the world, for example, saw wheat overtake many traditional
local staple crops, which were often well suited in the local
environment and highly productive.
The alarming rate of global biodiversity losses must be of concern
to everyone. The empirical and potential estimates for species
extinction caused by habitat destruction and pollution suggested
by Lugo (1988) range from one species/day to one species/hour
between 1970 and 2000. By the end of this century, our planet
could have lost anywhere from 20 to 50 percent of its species
or 500,000 to several million, including 35,000 to 40,000 plant
species.
Until the quite recent advent of scientific plant breeding, all
of the crops that farmers grew were "landraces"; that
is, local crop varieties developed in traditional agricultural
systems with selection - both natural and by farmers - over long
periods of time. In the late 19th century, plant breeders using
the emerging science of genetics began to systematically to improve
the landraces. From this process emerged a whole series
of more advanced cultivars emerged a whole series
of more advanced cultivars or modern varieties. This process has
led to steady increases in global yields in this century, allowing
food production to follow the trend of the world's growing population.
However, a product of plant breeding has been that it has tended
to narrow the genetic base of a crop in rough proportion to its
success.
In all advanced technologybased agriculture, a few excellent
varieties, themselves often genetically interrelated, now
tend to cover large areas of land to the exclusion of all else.
The side-effect of this widespread planting of a relatively small
number of improved varieties with special genetic characteristics
has been widespread loss of the varieties which preceded them.
There are numerous examples among horticultural crops of genera
and species which have suffered or are vulnerable to the threat
of genetic erosion. The genus Malus is probably the case
most often cited in this respect, with the world's apple industry
being now largely based on two varieties and a few of their progeny,
and with an estimated 85% of the 7,000 cultivars formerly known
and described having been lost.
For many people this displacement of traditional varieties represents
a process of genetic erosion at the farm level where not only
individual genes are lost but also complexes which are specifically
adapted to particular local environments. There is nowapted to particular local environments. There is now general
agreement among scientists that the conservation of the remaining
crop genetic resources is urgent and essential to maintaining
long-term food security.
Genetic erosion, or the loss of biodiversity, is often presented
as an ecological problem, but the underlying fundamental causes
are socioeconomic and political. The lack of economic incentives
to conserve diversity within agriculture and nature is a key cause
of continuing degradation. It is a vital challenge for our societies
to properly reflect the precious value of nature's diversity in
the world economy, in all market exchange rules and regulations.
Currently the basic genetic raw material with which breeding and
biotechnology industries work is essentially available free of
charge from nature or farmers' fields.
The cost of conserving biodiversity is high, but almost certainly
far less than the cost of allowing its degradation. While modern
biological science and technology can do wonders, it has to be
remembered that species extinction is forever. The world therefore
needs a means of valuation which recognises that the loss of biological
resources is irreversible. Our generation has a tremendous social
responsibility: to pass on to our children the integrity and wealth
of biodiversity that we have inherited from our parents. Only
by doing this will we enable future generations to face unpredictable
enable future generations to face unpredictable
environmental changes and human needs.
Through modern biotechnologies that are helping to overcome some
of the limitations of conventional breeding, wild diversity can
be more readily incorporated into crops and thus contribute to
world agricultural development.
It is recognised that production must be intensified, productivity
increased and productive natural systems must be suitably managed
all in a sustainable manner. This requires the combined
application of new and old technologies, including innovative
approaches to plant breeding and to farming practices. The success
of such endeavours will depend on the sustainable utilisation
of a broader range of species and genetic material within each
species, including the wild relatives of domestic species.
Many of the recent advances in agricultural technology, including
biotechnologies, have been made in industrialised countries where
they have often been developed on a commercial basis. In this
sense, the potential for the new biotechnologies to improve the
livelihood and food security situation of the world's poor is
largely under-realised. The new biotechnologies do provide excellent
tools for manipulating the genetic diversity of crop varieties
and animal breeds among the already domesticated species and further
increasing productivity and stabilspecies and further
increasing productivity and stability. Through the development
of plants and animals that are more adapted to ecological conditions,
the stability of production can be increased. The genetic manipulation
of other biological elements in crop production systems, such
as soil bacteria associated with nitrogen fixation, or natural
predators of pests (especially insects and to some degree pathogens
and weeds) is also a tool that can be used for enhancing sustainability
in agriculture.
Ours is the first generation with the immense biotechnological
power to radically change the evolutionary processes of natural
and artificial selection. Ours, too, is the responsibility that
goes with this power.
However it is recognised that there are also risks involved in
the application of biotechnologies; these risks include misuse
by humans, and environmental accidents. To address these and other
issues, a draft Protocol on Biosafety is now being negotiated
by those countries which are signatories to the Convention on
Biological Diversity.
With the advent of genetic engineering, the private sector biotechnology
industry has promoted the extension of industrial patenting regimes
to living organisms an approach popularly known as life
patenting.
As a result, genes, microorganisms and varieties of higher
species (plants and animals), either discovered in nature or genetically
manipulated by er discovered in nature or genetically
manipulated by breeders or genetic engineers, can and have become
the intellectual property of individuals or industry in countries
in which "life patenting" has been legalised. Between
1981 and 1985 at least 1175 patents for human genes were granted
world-wide; and of these patent applications, some 75% were from
the private sector.
Perhaps for reasons guided by the market, the socioeconomic
and food security needs of the poorer sections of society, especially
in developing countries, have not yet been sufficiently targeted
by biotechnology programmes, or have not been adequately considered
in shaping research policy.
This is an important point for decision-making in relation to
the allocation of public sector funding for agricultural research,
since it is estimated that there are now at least 1,400 million
people in developing countries who are dependent upon resource-poor
farming systems which have not benefited from technological advances
in plant or animal breeding or biotechnology.
It can also be debated whether current intellectual property right
systems allow appropriate incentives for directing public sector
agricultural research so that the social and economic needs of
these poor countries can be adequately met. This issue becomes
particularly worrying when it is considered that the limitation
of access for the world's poor farmers to improved genetics for the world's poor farmers to improved genetic materials
could become a constraint to increased food production.
Within the programmes of the Food and Agriculture Organisation
of the United Nations (FAO), the inter-related questions of who
benefits from the use of genetic resources and who owns genetic
resources stored in international seedbanks, in farmers' fields,
or in nature, became the focal point of international debates
during the 1980s. To confront and address these problems, the
member countries of FAO agreed on the need to develop a global
system which might ensure the conservation and sustainable use
of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, as well as
the just and equitable sharing of the benefits and responsibilities
derived from them.
The development of the Global System on Plant Genetic Resources
for Food and Agriculture began in 1983 with the establishment
of its governing body, the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources,
now the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,
a permanent intergovernmental forum for discussion and consensus
building between countries. Governments also adopted, that same
year, an international nonbinding agreement, the first of
its kind, called the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic
Resources, which provides the formal frameant Genetic
Resources, which provides the formal framework for the Global
System. The Commission has since coordinated, overseen and monitored
the development of a Global System for the Conservation and Utilisation
of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
Countries continue to negotiate and develop, through the Commission,
other important elements of the System which include various international
agreements, scientific regulations, technical cooperation mechanisms
and global instruments which are in different stages of development.
The availability of information about plant genetic resources
of crop species is fundamental to being able to harness the genetic
variability conserved in collections and critical for evaluating
the usefulness of in-situ conservation initiatives to counter
the risk of genetic erosion. In response to this need, the FAO
World Information and Early Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources
(WIEWS) was created five years ago, within the overall framework
of the FAO Global System on Plant Genetic Resources. Its primary
purpose is to facilitate access to information so as to allow
a more coherent utilisation of available genetic resources for
plant improvement work.
Desources for Food and Agriculture (GPA/PGRFA)
Despite the useful progress made so far, some major questions are still currently being debated in the FAO fora that deal with plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, i.e.:
In June 1996, the Fourth International Technical Conference on
Plant Genetic Resources, which was attended by 150 countries and
54 intergovernmental and nongovernmental organisations,
was held in Leipzig, Germany. The Conference was convened at the
request of the FAO Commission on Plant Genetic Rthe
request of the FAO Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, and
was endorsed in Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, and at the Nairobi Conference for
the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
The Conference adopted a Global Plan of Action for the Conservation
and Sustainable Utilisation of Plant Genetic Resources, together
with the Leipzig Declaration, and it also considered the first
Report on the State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources.
The Global Plan of Action was prepared through a participatory,
countrydriven process, involving a wide variety of stakeholders:
governments, nongovernmental and industry organisations,
and individual scientists. A total of 158 governments prepared
Country Reports, assessing the status of their plant genetic resources,
as well as their capacity to care for and utilise these resources.
Twelve regional and subregional meetings were held, where
governments considered regional problems and opportunities, and
made recommendations for the Plan. The Report on the State of
the World's Plant Genetic Resources is the first comprehensive
worldwide assessment of the state of plant genetic resource
conservation and use, identifying the urgent priorities for action
which are, in turn, addressed in the Global Plan of Action. The
Report and the Plan are now two strategic elements of the < Plan are now two strategic elements of the FAO
Global System for the Conservation and Utilisation of Plant
Genetic Resources.
The Plan is intended to provide a coherent strategy for action in several fields: in-situ and ex-situ conservation, sustainable utilisation of plant genetic resources, and institutional and capacity building. Therefore, the GPA needs to be taken as a whole and considered in a comprehensive manner embracing all operational, programmatic, policy and political aspects.
The Leipzig Declaration asserts that "our primary objective
must be to enhance world food security through conserving and
sustainably using plant genetic resources". This Declaration
commits the Governments to taking necessary steps to implement
the Global Plan of Action.
On a different, albeit related, plane, the world's political leaders,
meeting in Rome at the 1996 World Food Summit, have made a public
commitment to end hunger. Through the Plan of Action adopted by
the Summit, governments, international organisations and all sectors
of civil society are encouraged to join forces in a concerted
effort to ensure access at all time to the food required for a
healthy active life for all the world's people. Meeting the same
month, in November 1996, the Third Conference of the Parties of
the Convention on Biological Diversity held in Buenos Aires focused
on agricultural biodiversity, and its res focused
on agricultural biodiversity, and its role in ensuring a transition
towards sustainable agricultural practices.
All of these inter-governmental meetings recognised the importance of plant genetic resources for food security and called on countries to implement the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
The needs highlighted at Leipzig, Rome and Buenos Aires, and the
recommendations agreed upon by governments in the Global Plan
of Action for Plant Genetic Resources present many challenges
to all crop scientists, in terms of developing or adapting suitable
technologies and approaches for the sustainable utilisation of
plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA). The
concept of sustainable utilisation is defined in the Convention
on Biological Diversity as the use of genetic resources in a productive
manner which does not lead to the long term loss of such resources.
This provides for an approach which integrates both conservation
and utilisation and which spans all aspects of the use of PGRFA,
whether by scientists or farmers.
Plant genetic resources can be described as the part of biodiversity
that nurtures people and is nurtured by people. Horticultural
crops, although constituting only one part of plant genetic resources
for food and agriculture, comprise a very wide range of species
of vital importance to ensuring ange of species
of vital importance to ensuring food security.
All governments have now recognised that the utilisation of plant genetic resources is the key to improving agricultural productivity and sustainability and can contribute to socio-economic development, food security and the alleviation of poverty. To achieve these desirable goals, the Global Plan of Action promotes an integrated strategy for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of PGRFA with the following features:
productivity - greater use of plant genetic resources will be required to contribute to the productivity increases needed to meet growing populations. This will require continued access to, and exchange of, the world's plant genetic resources;
sustainability - there is a need to ensure that such use of plant genetic resources is coupled with the conservation of plant genetic resources, both in-situ and ex-situ. This will require, inter alia, approaches to crop improvement which allow the maintenance of higher levels of genetic diversity and resources in production systems, thereby contributing to reduced genetic vulnerability and less genetic erosion. Additionally, conservation programmes should be clearly linked with utilisation efforts and the sharing of benefits, in order to reinforce the sustainability of such programmes;
equity - those responsible for conserving and developing
planthose responsible for conserving and developing
plant genetic resources should be able to participate fully in
the benefits derived from their use. There is thus a need to develop
crop improvement approaches to enable farmers in marginal areas,
as well as those in high-productivity areas to benefit fully from
the utilisation of plant genetic resources.
In meeting these challenges of harnessing plant genetic resources
for sustainable agriculture and future food security, the role
of crop scientists will be crucial.
The importance of conserving plant genetic resources has been
stressed in several international agreements, such as the International
Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources and the Convention on Biological
Diversity and its Agenda 21. The successful conservation and sustainable
utilisation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture
involves action by a wide range of people in every country: policy
makers, planners, scientists, genebank curators, breeders, rural
communities and farmers. Strong coordination mechanisms are required
at the national level to enable all these players to participate
constructively.
In response to this need, through its international networks on
ex-situ and in-situ conservation, FAO is pursuing
efforts in order to coordinate, under this umbrella, the conservation
and utilisation of er this umbrella, the conservation
and utilisation of plant genetic resources of many agricultural
crops and to facilitate the exchange of genetic material, information
and technology.
The need for germplasm conservation is recognised for all crops
and plants of agricultural importance. This, in turn, dictates
the need for programmes in evaluation and documentation, and these
activities must be carried out in cooperation with institutions,
scientists and technicians with crop-specific competence. In this
context, we consider it important to foster the establishment
of crop-related networks with special competence and responsibilities
related to genetic resources of specific crops.
The development of clearer policy lines related to the conservation
of genetic variability of crop species, through regional and global
inter-country cooperative programmes, was one of the principal
aims of the Leipzig Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources.
The Global Plan of Action on PGR is now under implementation through
a partnership mechanism involving inter-country crop-related networks,
as well as several national and international institutions and
organisations, including non-governmental organisations. The Global
Networks which have been recently launched by the FAO are thus
elements of the Global Plan of Action.
It is being demonstrated that inter-country networking constitutes
a useful instrument to facilitate policy itutes
a useful instrument to facilitate policy development and to provide
guidance and global coordination for inter-institutional research
work concerning crop genetic resources. It should be underlined
that the crop-related networks that operate under the aegis of
the FAO have been constituted on the basis of voluntary and self-funding
participation of interested countries, institutions and scientists.
In facilitating the implementation of the Global Plan of Action
on PGR, and recognising the important role of horticultural crops
for agriculture and for food security, FAO has concentrated efforts
on promoting regional, inter-regional and global crop-related
networks, particularly oriented towards the horticultural sector,
as instruments to facilitate scientific exchange, information
sharing, technology transfer, and research collaboration. The
networks also provide a forum for determining ways of sharing
responsibility for the collection, conservation, evaluation, characterisation
and utilisation of horticultural genetic resources. These crop-related
networks bring together different types of specialists to set
collaborative research objectives, define policy priorities and
strengthen activities on the conservation and utilisation of genetic
resources in relation to specific groups of crops. Most of the
partners of these inter-country cooperative programmes are internationally
recognised scientists and members of the Internatignised scientists and members of the International Society
for Horticultural Science which further strengthens collaboration
between the ISHS and FAO.
The innovative aspect of these networks is
that they promote a co-ordinated approach to identifying, evaluating
and conserving the genetic variability of selected crop species,
with the aim of improving cultivars and adapting them to farmers'
needs. The networks combine a thorough knowledge of the agricultural
conditions of farmers in network member countries, with an understanding
of the genetic potential of the crop species in question, and
use a "farmers-to-farmers" basis for the development
of conservation and utilisation activities. That involves the
collection from farmers of locally adapted germplasm, its improvement
and its return to the same farmers, or farmers in similar biotopes.
The work of several of these networks is also guided by an economic
intelligence function (analysis of market factors), which helps
farmers to improve quality and suit their production to market
requirements.
The distinguishing characteristic of the networks' components
on plant genetic resources consists in identifying the genetic
variability within each particular crop species, and the development
of methodologies for characterisation, evaluation and conservation
of different genotypes in view of their utilisation by present
and future generw of their utilisation by present
and future generations of farmers. As such, the networks are regarded
as very useful instruments for facilitating the process of implementing
the Global Plan of Action, and their expansion, in terms of both
crops and regions covered, is being pursued.
The crop-related networks also provide a useful forum for updating
the Report on the State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources.
Computerised data bases are being developed for several of the
networks and the information being gathered is available to be
systematically included in the World Information and Early Warning
System.
The many crop-specific networks and working groups may operate
at sub-regional, regional, inter-regional or global level. The
networks that FAO has developed over the last seven years, with
the aim of promoting a coordinated approach to identifying, evaluating
and conserving the genetic variability of selected crop species,
include the Global Mushroom Germplasm Conservation Network; the
Olive Genetic Variability Conservation Network; the International
Network on Cactus Pear; the Mediterranean and Inter-American Citrus
Networks and the Global Citrus Germplasm Network; the Inter-regional
Cooperative Network on Nuts; the Global Network on Tropical and
Subtropical Fruit Genetic Resources, and the Network on Traditional
Crops of Southern Africa.
Fungi are regarded as being the second largest group of organisms
in the biosphere after the arthropods. The total number of fungal
species is evaluated as 1,500,000 in the world. Only 5% of theses
species are described and catalogued. Therefore our knowledge
on the world-wide fungal species is poor. Out of the 70% described
species of fungi, there are about 10,000 species of mushrooms
in which about 2,000 species from more than 30 genera are regarded
as prime edible mushrooms, but only a few dozen of them are cultivated.
In the particular of tropical and sub-tropical areas, the fungal
and mushroom genetic resources are certainly the most abundant
of the world and the least known.
This network was established to strengthen international collaboration
among specialised institutions, with a view to constituting a
coordinated global system of mushroom germplasm collections under
the aegis of FAO, and to facilitate technical communication and
the exchange of strains of cultivated mushroom, and of germplasm
of other mushroom species of interest for food and agriculture.
The network also has the aim of establishing a more comprehensive
and coordinated information mechanism, which would help to make
mushroom strains, together with appropriate production technologies,
available to as many interested countries and growers as possible.
The Global Network on Genetic Resource Conservation and Utilisation
of Citrus and Citrus Relatives was formally constituted,
under the aegis of the FAO, to be addressed to all countries interested
in citrus germplasm conservation and utilisation. The network
is functioning on a voluntary basis and it is involving national
institutions as well as existing regional and inter-regional networks
dealing with citrus genetic resources conservation and utilisation.
In this respect, the existing regional and inter-regional citrus
networks (The Inter-American Citrus Network - IACNET; The Network
on Citrus Improvement for the Wider Mediterranean Region -MECINET)
and those under constitution (Asia-Pacific and Sub-Saharan Africa)
and also the CLAM, NESCRAF and any other regional networking initiatives
that are dealing with citrus germplasm, are actively participating
in the Global Citrus Germplasm Network.
The scientific activities can be summarised as follow:
The Network intends:
The specific tasks to be addressed by the network are the following:
Identification of genetic variability.
Evaluation and characterisation.
Conservation.
Documentation and Information.
Germplasm exchange.
Utilisation.
Transfer of technology.
Public Awareness.
With the Global Network providing a coordinating mechanism, the
Mediterranean Fruit Inter-country Network (MESFIN), the RELAFRUT
(with its Sub-network on Plant Genetic Resources Conservation),
the UTFANET (Under-utilized Tropical Fruit Trees Network in Asia),
and the SEANUC (South East Africa Network on Under-utilised Crops),
as well as the new similar network being established in West Africa,
will continue to be instrumental itwork being established in West Africa,
will continue to be instrumental in pursuing activities aimed
at promoting the identification, evaluation and conservation of
the existing genetic diversity of tropical and subtropical fruit
species cultivated in the different regions, in order to make
it available for utilisation in improvement programmes to increase
and improve fruit production.
The International Network on Cactus Pear is carrying out
a series of activities, including a survey of members' existing
cactus genetic resource collections; the preparation of a "Descriptor
list for cactus pear" and "Guidelines for improving
and facilitating the exchange of cactus material for germplasm
collections"; and the establishment of germplasm repositories
in various locations. A basic germplasm information system for
network members will also be established, following the criteria
of the FAO World Information and Early Warning System on Plant
Genetic Resources.
The Global Olive Genetic Variability Network has recently
been established and is undertaking activities related to all
aspects of the identification, evaluation, and conservation of
olive germplasm, and will assess the value of the world's available
olive genetic variability, define priorities for its conservation,
describe the facilities available in each country for conserving
this germplasm, and elaboin each country for conserving
this germplasm, and elaborate a mechanism for exchanging information
through voluntary inter-country collaboration. The Network, which
includes national institutions dealing with olives from all over
the world, is preparing a world list of olive germplasm, covering
both cultivars and wild relatives, and a description of their
characteristics.
The Inter-regional Cooperative Network on Nuts with its transversal
Working Group on Tree Nut Genetic Resources Identification,
Evaluation and Conservation assists its member countries in
further developing a comprehensive programme of nut germplasm
conservation, and interacts actively with their nut production
sectors, in order to better guide a common and coordinated programme
of nut genetic resource utilisation. The transversal working group
is concentrating on preparation of nut germplasm catalogues, initially
for walnut, almond and pistachio and subsequently for hazelnut,
pecan, pinenut and chestnut.
The Network of Traditional Crops for Southern African Countries
(SEANUC) is establishing the state of genetic diversity of
indigenous under-utilised vegetables, root and tuber crops, and
also cereals and pseudocereals, grain legumes, in the region;
and is recommending priority species for exploration, collection,
conservation, evaluation and utilisation. A similar network is
under preparation in West Africa.
In addition, FAO cooperates with:
The West Asia and North Africa Network (WANA); The Andean
Network on Plant Genetic Resources (REDARFIT); The Amazonian
Network on Plant Genetic Resources (TROPIGEN); and The
Central American Network on Plant Genetic Resources (REMERFI).
Modern plant breeders and biotechnologists
rely on genetic variation in landraces, primitive cultivars and
wild forms to produce better adapted and higher yielding crop
varieties. Therefore, it is vital that a wider range of germplasm
is conserved, both ex-situ and in-situ, so that
it will be available in the future as a resource for adapting
crops to new and changing environmental conditions and to sustain
agricultural production and development.
With regard to horticultural crop germplasm,
in-situ conservation strategies involving farmers more
directly need to be considered, particularly for populations of
wild crop relatives and wild food plants in the areas where they
are found naturally. The term in-situ conservation also
takes in the maintenance, by farmers, of domesticated landraces
or traditional crop varieties. In the case of horticultural crops,
home gardens in many parts of the world are examples of on-farm
gere gardens in many parts of the world are examples of on-farm
germplasm conservation efforts which deserve to be given greater
support.
For horticultural species only, the tasks
to be undertaken to achieve effective in-situ conservation
of crop relatives and wild food plants are really too vast to
be contemplated. Hence there is a need for setting priorities
in terms of identifying those taxa and habitats for which protection
is most urgently needed, and determining the most important, effective
and efficient interventions to be undertaken.
Ex-situ
conservation strategies, similarly, need to be based on rationalising
criteria in order to reconcile the need, on one hand, to maintain
collections of genotypes that include most of the traits needed
for genetic improvement programmes with the necessity, on the
other hand, to reduce gene bank maintenance costs and to minimise
storage space requirements. In this regard, the concept of the
core collection, i.e. the selected part of an entire collection
which effectively represents the genetic diversity of a crop species
and its wild relatives, fulfils a useful purpose for breeders
and other users. Needless to say, the selection work entailed
in establishing a core collection requires an intricate knowledge
of the genetic variability of the taxa in question, and this can
only be derived from exhan question, and this can
only be derived from exhaustive studies on characterisation and
evaluation of the contents of collections.
Biotechnology applications offer instruments that can add efficiency and flexibility to germplasm conservation systems in at least two different ways, i.e.:
The in-vitro conservation methods are
considered to be particularly interesting for those horticultural
species that are normally vegetatively propagated as well as those
with recalcitrant seeds, and continued efforts are needed in this
field to develop protocols for a wider range of species.
Germplasm of many horticultural crops, particularly
tree fruits, is usually conserved in field collections, due to
the perennial nature of the plants. However, because of disease
and insect problems, weather factors and improper management,
many collections may be at risk, and germplasm may be lost. There
is a need, above all, for systematic duplication of material for
safety reasons, accompanied by information systems or
safety reasons, accompanied by information systems that effectively
tie together collections in different sites.
From the strategy viewpoint, given that there are alternative
approaches to the conservation of genetic variability of perennial
crop species and their wild relatives, and considering the constraints
of feasibility and cost associated with each, there is really
a need to develop a system of complementarity between methods
- field, seed, in-vitro and, when appropriate, in-situ
With regard to germplasm of horticultural crop species, many scientists
agree that the lack of useful characterisation and evaluation
data of accessions is often one of the main reasons for under-utilisation
of the contents of genetic resource collections. In response to
this problem, efforts are now being made for different horticultural
crop groups to develop an approach to rationalising evaluation
and characterisation work to fit within budgetary constraints
and at the same time to take advantage of the possibilities offered
by integrating the use of molecular tools. From such initiatives,
notably within the framework of the different crop-related genetic
resources networks, the following criteria are emerging and these
may also guide collaborative initiatives to better the prospects
f guide collaborative initiatives to better the prospects
for the effective utilisation of genetic resources in crop improvement
efforts for other species:
Plant genetic resources serve as the basic raw materials for crop
improverces serve as the basic raw materials for crop
improvement and together with seeds, they serve as the basis for
food security. The conservation and utilisation of PGR is both
an international imperative and concern at the same time. Following
from that, the widespread utilisation of improved seeds by farmers
is recognised as the most credible and cost effective strategy
for enhancing food production. It is therefore necessary to ensure
that arrangements are in place to ensure adequate PGR management
and to assure farmers of a continuous and unimpeded access to
improved seeds and planting materials as a basis for food security.
In the face of shrinking genetic variability as a basis for plant
breeding and the supply of not more than 10 % of improved seed
needs of farmers, urgent interventions are required in this area.
Much of the world's rural population is wholly dependent on its
own farm-saved seed and planting materials for its food security.
There is a need, recognised in the Global Plan of Action on PGRFA,
to strengthen local capacity to produce, distribute and market
farm-saved seed of crop varieties that are essential for local
food security, and to help diversify agricultural production systems
through the increased use and commercialisation of local and under-utilised
crops.
The informal seed supply system has its roots in the age-old tradition
used by farmers to ensure the supply of more than 90% of the planting
mre the supply of more than 90% of the planting
materials of staple food crops required to meet food security.
This comprises mainly on-farm production, selection and saving
of grain, tuber or stalk from harvested crop as seed for the next
cropping season. It also includes on-farm seed production surpluses,
which are traded in the appropriate local markets in various forms
(cash, barter or kind).
The role of this system in germplasm conservation has been well
documented. Among the many qualities which have made on-farm seed
production a feasible option for seed security of staple food
crops are:
Thus, improved capacity for seed production is seen as a key to
promoting the conservation and utilisation of PGR as a basis for
food security and agricultural development, and for ensuring a
better sharing of the benefits derived fromensuring a
better sharing of the benefits derived from their use. FAO is
assisting Member Countries in the development of their seed industries
through the implementation of programmes which are consistent
with their priority needs and in line with current international
trends. The overall aim of such programmes is to stimulate the
capability of the formal sector to provide farmers with their
improved seed requirements in the most effective and efficient
manner, whilst also assisting the informal sector, as well as
individual farmer efforts, to make up the difference.
Recently, several programmes aimed to develop seed production
for horticultural crops have been promoted, particularly in Africa,
and through this regional exercise it has become very evident
that research in this sector has made very little progress in
the last 25 years. Most of the African countries are highly dependent
on outside sources for horticultural seed and planting material.
An inter-regional training programme for women seed producers
launched in Central Africa, and the Improved On-farm Seed
Production for SADC countries are programmes intended to help
farmers produce good quality seeds and planting material from
their own cultivars, and thus promote the conservation of their
plant genetic resources.
In many parts of Africa today, improved seed usage through the
formal sector is not more than 5%. It is critical that by the
year 2010, than 5%. It is critical that by the
year 2010, this should be raised to not less than 15 %. Since
this target, though a big improvement on the present situation,
falls short of overall requirement, the informal sector as represented
by on-farm seed production will be expected to make up the shortfall.
Hence, with regard to seeds and planting materials, the overriding
requirement in seed industry development in Africa over the next
ten years will be the strengthening of the informal sector, especially
improvement in on-farm seed production, since this is the main
source of seeds for small scale farmers.
Since the region is prone to natural calamities for which in the
past emergency seed supplies have been a recurring feature, emphasis
has been placed on the establishment of sub-regional and national
seed security programmes involving a networking approach, to enable
groups of countries to assist each other, using their own indigenous
cultivars in meeting such emergency needs. The attainment of seed
security will also involve the strengthening of national capabilities
to ensure continuous availability of improved seeds. This entails
assisting the countries of the region to develop appropriate policies
and plans, to improve seed infrastructure and technology and to
involve the private sector in seed production and distribution.
To achieve this, emphasis is placed on training, including the
training of women farmers in selected countriraining of women farmers in selected countries, and introduction
of workable seed quality control schemes, such as the "Quality
Declared Seed".
Planned conservation and utilisation of local plant genetic resources
is of prime importance for food security, as it permits small-scale
farmers of developing countries to have permanent access to seed
and planting material adapted to their region. Conservation of
and access to these resources are most important in disaster-prone
areas, as farmers of these regions often lose all of their seed
stocks during disasters. Furthermore, disasters cause the loss
of local varieties or genotypes, hence leading to the erosion
of genetic diversity.
To ensure seed security, it is necessary to protect the vital
genetic diversity of the important food crops and promote and
strengthen the conservation of locally adapted varieties and genetic
resources at the farm and local community level. Such conservation
would complement, but not be an alternative to, national and regional
gene banks. Though important to re-establish seed security quickly
following disaster, locally conserved varieties are more vulnerable
to disaster than nationally or regionally held genetic resources.
Thus it is also necessary to develop early warning systems to
monitor qualitative and quantitative changes in the status of
geneticve and quantitative changes in the status of
genetic diversity in locally and regionally adapted crop genetic
resources.
A large amount of the plant genetic diversity that is lost in
disaster prone regions also affects horticulture. During the rehabilitation
process, after the event, it may sometimes appear easy to restore
the vegetable production through the introduction of seeds of
new adapted varieties. More difficult or even impossible may be
to restore fruit production with appropriate varieties to be introduced
from outside the region. In such circumstances, the choice of
a wrong genotype may result in a second and irreversible disaster.
Additionally, the introduction of such foreign varieties induces
uncontrolled crossings with local genotypes adapted to the region.
This "genetic pollution" is responsible for the definitive
loss of local genetic resources and, as a result, of the disruption
of the sustainable agricultural system of the region concerned.
From another point of view, horticultural staple food crops and
horticultural traditional crops are certainly an important component
of an effective seed security strategy as they may play a significant
role in rehabilitating food production and income in a region
affected by a man-made or natural calamity. Unfortunately, this
is not always recognised.
It has therefore been considered appropriate to develop in this
paper a chapter on this importato develop in this
paper a chapter on this important topic, since the protection
and preservation of crop genetic diversity should be addressed,
as a first measure, in order to be able successively to develop
strategies for the rehabilitation of agricultural production in
regions affected by calamities through the seed multiplication
and re-introduction of the same crops and varieties that were
cultivated prior to the disaster.
Seeds of the varieties and land races of our food crops provide
the biological basis for plant food production, and seeds contain
gene complexes which confer environmental and agro-climatic adaptation
and resistance to diseases and pests. Plant genetic diversity
thus makes a significant contribution to nutritional quality and
food security.
The incidence of chronic undernutrition is unacceptably high in
many poor countries, and without extraordinary efforts more than
20 of them could have still above 30% of their population undernourished
by the year 2010. Even in countries with adequate or high average
food availabilities, significant numbers and proportion of the
population are and would remain inadequately nourished. And there
is no country in the world without pockets of extremely poor,
disabled, unattended for vulnerable individuals and groups, who
cannot cater for lnerable individuals and groups, who
cannot cater for their own needs.
As the outcome of the World Food Summit, FAO's Member Countries
declared the objective that the incidence of undernutrition should
be brought down to the incompressible minimum. This means there
is an urgent need to achieve increased production in food deficit
areas.
It is not possible to think that this increase of production can
be achieved only by increasing the yield per hectare, with indiscriminate
use of chemical fertilisers or pesticides. The possibilities of
extending the areas used for agriculture are relatively limited
and the yield capacity of some major staple food crops is reaching
a plateau. The ecological and economic consequences of increased
use of agro-chemicals and irrigation development are posing new
threats to the sustainability of agriculture.
To reach the objective of increased food production, certainly
it is necessary to explore opportunities for diversifying the
crop base of agriculture, which in turn can be reached as an outcome
of the sustainable exploitation of our plant genetic diversity.
In this regard, horticultural crop development could indeed represent
an important component of a global plan of action for improving
food security, provided that coordinated research policies and
adequate investments are addressed to improving the productivity
of traditional and subsistence horticultural crops. Horticultural
crosubsistence horticultural crops. Horticultural
crops are only part of the total genetic diversity, nonetheless
they can contribute greatly both to satisfying food security and
to integrating and diversifying dietary needs of humankind. In
fact, in many regions of the world, horticultural crops are important
staple food crops.
In those developing countries where hunger prevails, primary importance
is often given to the production of basic food crops, especially
cereals, whereas the improvement of traditional horticultural
subsistence crops - many of which are also rich in proteins, fats
and carbohydrates - is too often neglected.
Political and public opinion have become more sensitive with regard to the conservation of genetic diversity for food and agriculture. However, not enough work is done to preserve crop genetic diversity and particularly horticultural genetic diversity. Hardly any specialised
international institutions concentrate their efforts on preserving
horticulture genetic diversity, whereas for basic food crops,
important infrastructures and programmes have been developed in
the last fifty years. In fact, only 16% of the accessions currently
held in agricultural plant germplasm collections are of horticultural
species, which is indicative of the vast amount of research work
which still needs to be done.
It is also our current responsibility to promote awareness of the global problems of poveo promote awareness of the global problems of poverty, hunger and malnutrition, the long term solutions to which can be assisted by the committed efforts of the international community acting to ensure that governments, institutions, NGOs, industry and individuals work together as stewards of nature's diversity. Genetic resources,
technology, information and funds are all essential and complementary
resources in achieving food security and sustainable rural development.
Using and sharing these resources in a fair and equitable manner
is a moral obligation for the present generation and a condition
for the survival of future generations.
Conservation and utilisation of plant genetic resources for food
and agriculture are inextricably linked. Plant genetic resources
should be made more easily available and useful to plant breeders
and farmers for further improvement. The Global Plan of Action
on PGR recommends a major initiative in evaluating existing collections.
It recommends making the genetic material itself more readily
utilisable through genetic enhancement and pre-breeding activities.
Precautionary steps are needed in order to avoid genetic uniformity,
which can increase the vulnerability of major crops. In both developed
and developing countries, economic and social measures should
encourage farmers who continue to grow local varieties and produce
"dwho continue to grow local varieties and produce
"diversity-rich" crops, on genes from which the development
of new high-yielding crop varieties throughout the world depends.
Hundreds of species used at local level (most often managed and
harvested by women) are neglected, although many contribute substantially
to household food security. These crops should therefore be given
new attention, and marketing should be improved. The tangible
added benefit of these and other initiatives would be the broadening
of the genetic base of our food crops, thereby furthering crop
stability and world food security.
As the Report on the State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources
concludes, the better use of plant genetic diversity and resources
will be a prerequisite to meeting the challenges of development,
food security and poverty alleviation. In particular, greater
use of plant genetic diversity and resources will be required
in order to produce varieties adapted to the extreme and highly
variable environments of low-productivity or marginal areas. In
addition, the need to combine sustainable productivity increases
with mounting pressure to reduce the use of agrochemicals, in
parallel with the promotion of more efficient water and nutrient
management, is likely to place even greater reliance on the utilisation
of a wider range of PGRFA in high-productivity areas. To achieve
the necessary productivity increases to keep pace with food demandvity increases to keep pace with food demand
based on the sustainable use of natural resources, whilst maintaining
the environment is a major challenge facing society. A more coordinated
and concerted effort is needed to overcome all obstacles to the
better use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture
to meet these objectives. This will require much strengthened
collaboration between different countries, different scientific
disciplines, private and public sector, NGOs and farmers.
The questions of the conditions of access to germplasm and intellectual
property rights related to plant genetic resources are still being
discussed in general terms within the framework of the international
agreements and conventions cited in the previous chapters. Whilst
mechanisms such as the global crop-related networks described
above would not undertake to settle these issues, they could certainly
constitute a qualified forum to advise governments and international
bodies on the practical and longer-term implications of broader
plant genetic resource policy decisions as they relate to the
development of the horticulture sector.
Though this review exercise, it can be seen that a lot of progress
has been made in developing policy related to the conservation
of plant genetic resources, including horticultural genetic resources.
However, it is not possible to state that this process is being
backstopped by adequate research po is being
backstopped by adequate research policy. In fact, if a global
approach has been taken in different agricultural sectors where
international agreements are already under negotiation such as
the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Farmers'
Rights, Breeders' Rights, Plant Protection, etc., such a global
approach is still lacking in the area of agricultural research,
and in our case, in horticultural research.
Indeed, the research sector is facing repeated drastic cut-backs
in investment. Perhaps a lot of expectations are held for the
applications of biotechnology as the means of resolving the problems
of food and agricultural production in the third millennium. It
is worth pondering, at this point, whether a more balanced distribution
of investments among biotechnological research and classical research
in the field, might produce more substantial results in terms
of increased crop productivity.
Furthermore, the horticultural sector is perhaps today the most
neglected vis-à-vis this globalisation approach. This is
why FAO has very much welcomed the initiative to organise a World
Conference on Horticultural Research and encourages the participants
to use this forum for identifying and proposing concrete solutions
and a globally coordinated plan of action for the development
of horticultural crops for food and income.
It should be recognised that horticultural crops will play abe recognised that horticultural crops will play a very
important role in developing food production in the future. Most
of the food crops traditionally cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical
regions are horticultural crops and it is largely on these crops
that efforts will need to be concentrated in order to meet increasing
local food needs in many developing countries.
From a different point of view, if it is possible to state that
progress has been made on developing global policies on broad
thematic lines regarding plant genetic resources, it can be noted
that through all this process of consultation, the specialised
crop scientists and breeders seem somehow to have been disconnected
from the decision-making fora and may find themselves facing decisions
that have been made and ratified without their having contributed
to them.
Despite a lot of activity at the political level, initiatives
to call all the stakeholders, and particularly the technicians
involved in food and agricultural production, have not been so
numerous. Consequently the influence of the scientific community
in the policy-making process has been very limited, and colleagues
would agree that it is time to correct this situation. In the
field of horticulture, this World Conference on Horticultural
Research seems to be the first initiative and this exercise should
perhaps be continued and expanded at regional level.
Concerning the conservatiegional level.
Concerning the conservation of horticultural plant diversity and
its utilisation, it should be remarked that great efforts have
been made in developing new cultivars to be addressed to clients
of industrialised countries and in doing this, attention has been
reserved to those traits that were highly adapted to the uniform
management techniques of specialised modern agriculture. Efforts
for preserving genetic diversity have likewise been targeted much
more towards commercial end uses, rather than to protecting other
aspects of diversity which could be critical in adapting crops
to more marginal agro-ecological conditions. In other words, very
little has been done so far for the poor agricultural regions
in developing countries.
We have remarked that food production will need to be increased
by about 60% in the next thirty years, and most of this increase
should occur in developing countries. It should therefore be recognised
that research programmes should also include activities on topics
addressed to improving the productivity of those traditional crops
that may not be considered remunerative from the economic viewpoint
of industrialised countries but which represent a sustainable
source of food for populations in poor agricultural regions. What
could be suggested, as an innovative approach is a co-sharing
of responsibilities between industrialised and developing countries
in jointly defining and implement countries
in jointly defining and implementing research policy and programmes
in order that development assistance is not only expressed in
terms of financial support, but also through effective cooperation
among specialised institutions and scientists, with the institution
of an associated mechanism for monitoring progress.
Rome, 17 June 1998
FAO (1996a) Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, FAO: Rome.
FAO (1996b) The State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Background Documentation prepared for the International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic resources, Leipzig, 17-23 June, 1996, FAO: Rome.
FAO (1997) Report of the World Food Summit, FAO: Rome.
UNEP (1997) Report of the Third Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, UNEP: Nairobi, Document UNEP/CBD/COP/3/38.
UNEP (1994) Convention on Biological Diversity: Text and Annexes,
UNEP: Nairobi, Document UNEP/CBD/94/1