The climate and the geographical situation as well as the existing natural resources constitute the main advantages of Moroccan horticultural industry. Morocco has a potential to produce when the European countries cannot. Economically, Moroccan produce can stay competitive if productivity and quality in different horticultural sectors is improved.
Private sector is the main actor in developing export crops and marketing strategies. Although the country has a large potential in developing a wide range of produce for domestic as well for export, few crops havece for domestic as well for export, few crops have received an interest both from producers and exporters. The main markets for fresh produce of Morocco remain }Europe with a large percentage going to France.
Organizations such as trade associations (chambers of commerce, chambers of agriculture) are also participating in the agriculture policy of the country. Growers are also organized into associations such as ASPAM (Citrus growers and exporters), ASPEM (Vegetables growers and exporters) and APEFEL (Fruit and vegetables growers and exporters). The EACCE (Etablissement Autonome de Contrôle et de Coordination des Exportations) is a state organization in charge of quality control. This control takes place at ports for sea shipments or in packinghouses for products exported by air or trucks. This institution is also responsible for setting sanitary and quality standards and assumes the coordination of export contingents. EACCE also has the authority power to deliver permits for operating new packinghouses as well as using new packaging materials for export products.
Regarding research, education and outreach activities, Morocco has a number of institutions of higher education (MSc and Ph.D. levels) such as the Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II (IAV Hassan II) and Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture and a research institution named the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA). INRA is a large institugronomique (INRA). INRA is a large institution of research on different agricultural crops. Extension activities are carried out by the regional and rural organizations called Directions Provinciales d'Agriculture (DPA) or Offices Régionaux de la Mise en Valeur Agricole (ORMVA). These institutions and their activities will be discussed elsewhere in this report.
Research programs in the field of horticulture are diverse and several
aspects concerning means of increasing yield and reducing production costs
for several crops have been studied. Certainly, Moroccan institutions,
just like their counterparts in many countries suffer from lack of funds
to conduct adequate research and keep up with advanced technologies. As
it will be pointed out in this report, many institutions have invested
in laboratories and other facilities to make the Moroccan products competetive
at the market level.
Table 1. Area and total production for a number of fruit crops produced in Morocco in 1990 and 1996.
| Fruit |
Number of (.000
ha)
|
Total production
(.000 tons)
|
||||
|
|
1990
|
1995
|
1995
|
1990
|
1995
|
|
| Almonds |
110.0
|
126.0
|
70.0
|
30.0
|
||
| Apples |
22.0
|
26.5
|
248.8
|
230.0
|
||
| Apricots |
13.9
|
14.6
|
92.2
|
50.0
|
50.0
|
|
| Bananas |
2.8
|
2.5
|
100.0
|
90.0
|
||
| Citrus |
72.7
|
74.7
|
1468.0
|
994.0
|
||
| Dates |
85.0
|
85.0
|
100.0
|
95.0
|
||
| Grapes |
50.1Grapes |
50.1
|
51.0
|
259.0
|
180.0
|
|
| Olives |
360.0
|
444.0
|
550.0
|
450.0
|
||
| Peach/Nect. |
3.5
|
4.1
|
25.0
|
29.0
|
||
| Pears |
3.0
|
3.4
|
|
3.4
|
30.9
|
30.0
|
| Plums |
6.6
|
7.5
|
40.9
|
40.0
|
||
| Quince |
2.4
|
2.8
|
24.5
|
20.0
|
||
Therefore, more than 500 nurseries in the country and produce grafted trees of a wide range of fruit species. Most of these nurseries do not have an appropriate infrastructure for producing certified trees. Produced trees are often not well controlled for authenticity and for sanitary conditions. For these reasons, large growers have a tendency to import plant material from Europe and the USA. Imported matplant material from Europe and the USA. Imported material is either grafted and rooted trees or just scion budwood that is grafted on a locally produced rootstock.
During the 1994 season, the number of deciduous trees produced was 14.1 million from which 57% were of stone fruit and 43% were of pome fruit species.
Different institutions are involved in different research aspects of production of plant material such as selection, certification and propagation. INRA, DPVCTRF and SODEA are heavily involved in these aspects. INRA and SODEA have plant collection of various varieties and also laboratories for propagation and certification. Aspects under investigation in these institutions include:
I. Selection of new cultivars or rootstocks with good performance in
Morocco (e,g. peach Missour)
II. Identification and selection of new strains with low chilling requirements
III. Selection of early varieties of peaches
IV. Disease and calcareous resistant rootstocks
V. Development of new techniques of propagation and mainly micro-grafting
of several pome fruits
VI. Selection of new rootstocks or varieties through somaclonal varaition
VII. Molecular biology tests to identify individual trees that can
support different climatic condition
VIII. Introduction and evaluation of new cultivars and species under
different environmental conditions.
Research institutions in Morocco are working closely with growers on ways of reducing the incidence of these pathogens and disorders both preharvest and postharvest. During storage, most of the pathogens are of the fungus type and cause great damage. Pathogens occurring on some fruits include :
I. Blue mold caused by Penicillium expansum
II. Gray mold due to Botrytis cinerea.
For stone fruits, the main diseases are :
I. Brown rot caused by Monilinia fructicola
II. Rhizopus rot caused by Rhizopus stolonifer
III. Gray and blue mold respectively caused by Botrytis cinerea
and Penicillium sp.
IV. Sour rot caused by Geotrichum candidum
V. Alternaria rot caused by Alternaria sp.
Most of the research conducted in different institutions has focused on means of prevention and controlling the appearance of these pathogens. Approaches are diverse and can be summarized in the following :
I. Identification and determination of the pathogens
II. Understanding of the main factorf the pathogens
II. Understanding of the main factors that hasten or arrest the development
of the pathogen and the disease
III. Development of a preventive approach for control
IV. Determination of appropriate method to control the pathogen (chemical,
physical or biological).
V. For nematodes, research focuses on chemical treatments, cultural
practices as well as biological control
VI. Impose a quarantine program for importation of trees
VII. Identification and development of means to reduce the incidence
of rot roots caused by several pests such as Anoxia orientalis
Insects cause heavy damage to stone fruit industry (eg. apricot and
peach fruits) both preharvest and postharvest . Mediteranean fruit fly
is known for fruit losses that cause every year in many crops. The list
of insects is long and their incidence varies following environmental conditions
and cultural practices. Different approaches are followed to reduce the
insect impact on these crops. Some of these strategies will be discussed
elsewhere.
Research has focused on means of controlling these disorders such :
I. Mineral nutrition diagnosis and soil and leaf
I. Mineral nutrition diagnosis and soil and leaf analysis
II. Calcium treatments (against bitter pit in apples for example)
III. Forecast of climatic conditions
IV. Means of reducing postharvest disorders and losses
I. Plant density for different cultivars for different situations
II. Pruning systems according to different plant densities
III. Water requirement irrigation systems
IV. Impact of water stress during the fruit development cycle on fruit
and tree growth and total production
V. Studies on tree behavior under different soil and climate conditions
VI. Trials on production of peaches under plastic covers
VII. Mineral nutrition studies (type of fertilizers, mode of application
and timing)
VIII. Methods of diagnosis of soil, water and leaf analysis as tools
for determining plant needs and fertilization programs.
Research has focused on finding means of reducing postharvest losses and ways of preserving fruit quality. This include storage techniques and
A general survey on citrus production was conducted in 1991. A general picture of the situation of Moroccan citrus industry was developed and major problems that limit its productivity were identified.
Research activities on citrus are diverse and include all aspects that
contribute to the improvement of the productivity and quality.
Morocco has succeeded in the development and selection of several cultivars. Among the new varieties of the clementine mandarin type are ; Bekria, Nour, Sidi Aissa, Afourer and Ain Taoujdate.
These new clones are the results of a selection program of both the public (INRA) and the semi-public (SODEA) institutions. Several of these clones are now commercially available. These mandarins allow an extension of the harvesting period from September to February and bring good prices for the production.
Similarly, for orange type varieties, several nucellar clones have been selected and are now commercially cultivated.
Other aspects related to plant improvement program concern the introduction
and a selection of different rootstocks that have resistance to major diseases
and are tolerant to environmental condition particularly since most of
the citrus plantations in Morocco are under sour orange. The latter is
known to be very sensitive to Tristeza and thus any introduction of the
disease to the country will devastate citrus groves.
However, in atively free from serious diseases.
However, in few areas, problems related to Phytophthora spp and virus diseases such as exocortis and psorosis can be found and contribute to reduced yield of several orchards.
I. Methods of propagation of certified plants free of diseases are commercially
used
II. Some private nurseries are not equipped with adequate material
for producing health plants.
From producers point of view, insects are the main problems which seriously affect the quality of the production of their trees. Special attention was given by entomologists to specific insects that have a direct impact on the orchard productivity. Among these insects :
I. Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata)
II. California red scale
III. Mites
IV. Citrus leafminer (recently introduced to Morocco).
These insects require multiple applications of chemicals during a long period of the fruit cycle. In some areas of the Souss Valley for example as many as 8 to 10 applications are sometimes necessary in order to protect fruits from insect attacks.
In addition to chemical treatments, other approaches have been developed including biological control and integrated pest management techniques. The latter approach is underway in specific localities where some predators have been released. In addition to introduced predators from the USA and Australia, local parasitoids have been identified.
Posthralia, local parasitoids have been identified.
Postharvest decay of fruits have received attention from reserachers as well as exporters and packers. The main diseases are:
I. Blue mold due to Penicilium italicum
II. Green mold caused by Penicillium digitatum
III. Phytophthora rot caused by Phytophthora sp.
IV. Sour rot due to Geotrichum candidum
V. Other diseases can cause severe damage of harvested crop.Among the
major causes Alternaria rot caused by Alternaria citri and stem
end rot caused by Diplodia nataliensis.
Many of these pathogens are controlled chemically or using appropriate cultural practices and harvesting procedures.
During the recent years an important program of biological control was
undertaken in Morocco. This program aims to develop an integrated approach
to control citrus diseases and to reduce use of chemical treatments.
I. Planting densities. The tendency in export oriented groves is planting
at high densities system ranging from 500 to 1000 trees per ha.
II. Determination of type and time of pruning.
III. Pruning and training of new varieties under different planting
densities and different climatic conditions. Late varieties of citrus are
not pruned the same way than the mid seasf citrus are
not pruned the same way than the mid season and early maturing varieties.
Irrigation and fertilizer applications are necessary for citrus production. Most of the groves are irrigated either from wells or from dams. Pumping water is becoming more and more expensive as the level of the water-table is decreasing continuously and has already reached 150 m deep in many areas of the country. Attention is now given to management of this natural resource. The government is encouraging the use of micro-irrigation and other methods that can contribute to reducing excessive use of water for irrigation.
Micro-irrigation and fertigation are replacing irrigation by furrow or basin around the trunk of trees. However, despite the efficiency of drip or micro-sprinkler technologies, the methods are still limited to few modern groves. Research topics related to this aspect consist of :
I. Determining the amount of water required and irrigation system to
be used for optimum production
II. Optimization of micro-irrigation systems in different soils
Mineral nutrition has been studied intensively as serious mineral deficiencies are observed in some orchards. Moroccan soils have a relatively high pH (7 to 9).
Topics that have received attention are :
I. Methods of diagnosis for different nutrients
II. Adoption of simple techniques to predict tree nutritional status
III. Influence of different micro and macro ele
III. Influence of different micro and macro elements on tree productivity.
IV. Foliar supply of nutrients
Salinity in the soils can be a limiting factor for production of citrus. In Morocco, with the recent years of drought and heavy pumping of underground water led to a significant increase of salinity in many areas of the country (mainly Berkane in the Northeast and the Souss in the South). Aspects related to this situation and its impact on the productivity of citrus groves have been studied.
As for salinity, calcareous soils can limit tree production. Some rootstocks that are tolerant to tristeza are sensitive to calcareous soils. Searching for other rootstocks is another priority of research for plant improvement.
Controlling flowering, fruit set, fruit size and quality are of major importance. These parameters have received attention for several years :
I. Several studies have been conducted to understand mechanisms and
factors that control flower initiation and differenciation of various cultivars.
II. Application of growth regulators and other natural compounds to
improve fruit set of seedless varieties.
III. Means of controlling flowering and reducing alternate bearing
of clementine
IV. Use of growth regulators to control vegetative growth and stimulate
fruit production
V. Foliar application of macro and micro-elements during flowering
or fruit growth and its impact of fruit developmeng
or fruit growth and its impact of fruit development and final size.
Despite the existing infrastructure and technologies, Morocco has not made use of newer technologies of postharvest handling, transportation and storage. Among the aspects investigated by researchers:
I. Determination of guidelines to predict time of harvesting
II. Development of maturity and harvesting indices for different varieties
III. Adoption of new techniques for harvesting and handling of fruits
IV. Impact of different handling practices on fruit quality
V. Improvement of fruit transportation to packinghouses
VI. Optimization of degreening operation for clementine fruit
VII. Design and construction of packinghouses
VIII. Control of the machinery (grading, sizing, pack-out fruits...).
IX. Use of different treatments and means to reduce postharvest losses
due to pathogens (waxing, biological control....).
X. Determination of approaches to optimize packinghouse conditions
(sanitatiohes to optimize packinghouse conditions
(sanitation, disinfestation...).
XI. Optimization of storage conditions (temperature, humidity, ventilation,
treatments...)
XII. Improvement of fruit transportation (domestic and export)
XIII. Design and optimization of packaging materials
XIV. Implementation of appropriate technologies for postharvest handling
of fruits.
XV. Control of pesticide residue analyses
XVI. Evaluation and determination of causes of discarded fruits in
packinghouses
Moroccan soils are infested with a soil borne pathogen which cause the disease «Bayoud soil borne pathogen which cause the disease «Bayoud ». During the last 50 years the disease has destroyed more than 2/3 of the palm tree population. Varieties which produce good fruits are very sensitive to the disease while many varieties with poor quality fruits are tolerant. Research on date palm has focused on :
I. Selection of resistant varieties to the 'Bayoud' disease (clone 3014
was selected as a resistant to bayoud and has good fruit quality).
II. Selection of varieties with good yield and fruit quality
III. Conduct surveys and field visits to locate plants with desirable
characteristics.
IV. Development of techniques of micro-grafting (still in its early
stages of research)
V. Development and optimization of propagation by tissue culture
I. Use of biochemical techniques to identify and characterize bayoud
resistant strains of palm trees
II. Breeding program in order to produce trees with high fruit quality
and good resistance to bayoud
III. Reducing the incidence of the Bayoud disease by using antagonists
of fusarium sp. albedenis and by using soi fusarium sp. albedenis and by using soils unfavorable
to the spreading of the disease.
IV. Understanding of the biological cycle of mites, insects that attack
dates in storage
V. Use of predators to control Parlatoria scale
VI. Investigations on carb moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae, its impact
on fruit in storage
VII. Trials of different insecticides on pre and postharvest.
Not many studies have been done in relation to cultural practices. More research is needed in :
I. Planting spacing and density
II. Improving pollination techniques
III. Water requirement, period and system of irrigation
IV. Fertilizers application (type and timing)
V. Training systems as individual or group of plants
VI. Studies on pollination and characterization of type of pollen for
different varieties
VII. Protection of date palm tree and fruit from various insects and
diseases
I. Determination of harvesting and matw underway concerns :
I. Determination of harvesting and maturity indices
II. Development of quality standards
III. Development of new techniques for harvesting fruits according
to the variety
IV. Evaluation of the impact of different harvesting methods on fruit
quality and postharvest shelflife
V. Improving postharvest handling (packaging, transport...)
VI. Evaluation of methods of storage of dates
VII. Use of heat treatment for fruit desinfestation
VIII. Development of approaches for drying and conditioning fruits
Olive research is carried out mainly by INRA. It appears from their
estimates that more than 80% of olive trees receive no special care. Some
aspects that are studied include :
I. Understanding biological cycle of the pests
II. Development of methods of determination of when to intervene (threshold
levels).
III. Means of control of pests and pathogens
IV. Studies on the use of biological control such as the use of Bacillus
thuringiensis to control the olive moth.
V. Control of rot of the roots caused by Armillaria mellea pathogen
VI. Identification of growth of pests such as Dacus olea, Prays
oleae
I. Introduction and adoption of new methods of production
II. Development of means for improving fruit production and quality
III. Reducing alternate bearing
IV. Optimization of planting density and productionring
IV. Optimization of planting density and production systems
V. Determination of adequate timing and appropriate systems of irrigation
of olive trees.
VI. Use of fertilizers (type, quantity, timing and fractionation).
VII. Optimization of pruning techniques for olive trees in irrigated
areas
VIII. Foliar applications of fertilizers and growth regulators to control
flowering and improve fruit production and quality
Research related to postharvest aspects include :
I. Determination of maturity indices for harvesting olives for different
varieties and destination
II. Development of methods for harvesting of fruits
III. Improving methods of extraction of oil and methods of controlling
quality
IV. Optimization of storage conditions of olive fruits
I. Propagation techniques for new cultivars and rootstocks
II. Identification of cultivars that suit different climates of the
country
III. Search for rootstocks with resistance to different soils as well
as for drought
IV. Search for rapid techniques to identify diseases and quarantine
pathogens and insects during the introduction of new plant material
V. Development of new techniques to produce disease free plants
VI. Development of substrates as well as rooting conditions for grapes
I. Identification and understanding of the pathogens
II. Assess the importance of these attacks on fruit production and
quality
III. Development of means to reduce their incidence
IV. Understand environmental conditions and other factors that favors
disease development
I. Studies of the behavior and quality production of new cultivars under
Moroccan conditions
II. Effect of planting densities and trellising sconditions
II. Effect of planting densities and trellising systems on the production
III. Determination of irrigation requirements and timing of irrigation
IV. Impact of different systems of irrigation on the production and
fruit quality
V. Determination of mineral nutrition of plants according to area of
production, system of irrigation and fruit destination
VI. Develop guidelines to help growers to optimize fruit production
I. Understanding of maturity indices
II. Introducing new methods of harvesting and handling
III. Studies related to fruit physiology and biochemistry
IV. Determination of storage conditions of different varieties
V. Assess the conditions of Modified and Controlled Atmospheres on
fruit quality
VI. Studies on biological control of postharvest decay
I. Development of micro-propagation techniques to respond as quick as
possible to increasing demand
II. Production of disease free plants
III. Reduction of mutation in tissue culture plants
I. Search for new means to reduce nematode infestation
II. Evaluation of solarization, biological control and methyl bromide
treatment on production and nematode population
III. Use of different plants to reduce the population of nematode
IV. Develop guidelines to chemical treatments to control nematodes
V. Use of non infested soils and soils with characteristics that limit
nematode spreading
VI. Identification of different pathogens that attack the plant (leaf,
pseudostem or fruit bunch)
VII. Development of means to reduce their incidence
I. Planting densities
II. Time of selection of followers
III. Control of environmental conditions inside the plastic greenhouse
IV. Irrigation systems and determination of water requirements
V. Determination of plant nutrition and its control
VI. Mode and time of applications
VII. Understanding of other techniques that influence plant productivity
I. Determination of harvesting indices
II. Different handling systems and the quality of produce
III. Optimization of fruit ripening using appropriate conditions of
temperature, ethylene etc.
IV. Storage conditions of banana
V. Fruit disorders after storage
VI. Physiological and biochemical aspects of fruit
Morocco produces annually over 3million tons of fresh vegetables. A large part of the produced crops is for the domestic market and for processing. Many Crops are produced in open fields and include tomatoes, potatoes, carrots, eggplants, beans, peas, onions etc. Total area covered with vegetables was 206 000 and 168 000 ha respectively for 1990 and 1995. The corresponding productions were respectively 3.7 and 2.5 million tons for the same years. In 1990 An average of 300.000 tons of vegetables are exported. Among the exported produce, tomato is by far the largest crop with an average of 150.000 per year followed by potatoes (100.000 to 140.000 tons).
Yields are generally low and this constitutes the main reason for low
productivity. Even though farm labor is available at low cost, small growers
which constitute a large portion of our vegetable farmers suffers from
lack of technical know how, and of advanced technologies and production
practices. However, this cannot be generalized as some producers are using
the latest technologies for production.
I. Means of controlling quarantine pathogens
II. Quick approach to detect seed contamination with bacteria and fungi
III. Develop appropriate techniques for seedling production (substrate
media, seeding methods etc...)
IV. Grafting studies of tomato and melon
V. Optimization of micro-tuber production for potato propagation
I. Optimization of methods of controlling nemtode infestation (soil
fumigation, solarization, biological control...
II. Studies on rootstock use on sandy soils for sensitive varieties
to soil borne pathogens and pests
III. Investigation on stage and conditions of transplanting of seedlings
to the field
IV. Development of an integrated pest management approach to reduce
the incidence of different pathogens and pests
Despite the improvement of applied techniques and technologies for production, more research and extension activities are needed and current research activities are in the areas of :
I. Optimization of the greenhouse construction and design according
to the crops and the climatic conditions of each region of the country
II. Computer-aided management and controlled greenhouse environmental
conditions
III. Determination of cultural practices from planting densities to
harvest
IV. Assessment of irrigation systems and determination of water requirements
of different crops
V. Development of approaches to control mineral nutrition disorders
on fruits and to prevent deficiences
VI. Optimization of irrigation and fertigation methods and development
of means to control this technique
VII. Improvement of pollination, pruning and trellising of crops under
greenhouses
I. Understanding factors that affect fruit quality of the produce
II. Determination of guidelines and maturity and harvest indices for
different crops
Is and maturity and harvest indices for
different crops
III. Understanding the effect of harvest, handling and transportation
on fruit postharvest quality
IV. Studies related to protect fruits from pathogens and postharvest
disorders
V. Assess modern technologies such as Modified and Controlled Atmospheres
for storage and transit
VI. Studies of different means of preserving fruit quality (use of
coatings, different physical treatments to reduce injuries and disorders)
These studies aim to attain minimum quality standards required and imposed for export crops. These standards must meet the requirements imposed by the importer market. All crops are checked either at the packinghouse station or at the port. Quality analyses are performed both at harvest and at the checking points. The standards parameters include sensorial and organoleptic characteristics as well as sanitary and pesticide residues. Exporters must meet the minimum required before receiving a permit for shipment.
For domestic markets, there are no defined quality standards for a large number of fruits and vegetables. The Ministry of Agriculture is developing a list of parameters for quality control within the country. These standards will contribute to the development of this sector.
I. Trials on new varieties
II. Development of varieties for local market and for industry
III. Selection of varieties resistant to different diseases and insects
I. Optimizing the conditions of producing good quality of flowers
I. Adoption of appropriate methods to handle flowers
III. Optimize water requirements and find adequate systems for production
IV. Use of fertigation and heating systems for some varieties
Postharvest systems
Flowers needs a great care from harvesting to destination :
II. Determination of conditions and factors that allow flowers preservation
III. Reduce postharvest losses at the market level
Economic, management and marketing
Regarding the aspects related to marketing of horticultural crops. Few
studies have been conducted. Searching for new strategies of marketing
fresh products is becoming a major concern of our growers as the European
Union markets, the main destination of Moroccan products, is imposing different
obstacles such as quotas and social close.
Institutions working on Research (including horticultural products) in
Morocco with the number of scientists and researchers within brackets).
I. Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Agadir
(40 enseignants chercheurs)
II. Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat
(240 enseignats chercheurs)
III. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Rabat (260 chercheurs)
IV. Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture, Meknès (+90 en
IV. Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture, Meknès (+90 enseignatns chercheurs).
© WCHR