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Professor Geoffrey R. Dixon,
Department of Bioscience & Biotechnology,
Univent of Bioscience & Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK
Introduction
Production Horticulture, also termed Commercial Horticulture, absorbs and applies scientific innovation and new technologies at a far higher rate than other land - based industries. In this characteristic Production Horticulture resembles the pharmaceutical or the information technology industries. The efficiency gains obtained by rapid application of innovation permit horticulture to remain viable without protection from tax - derived public subsidies of production (Dixon, 1994). Regrettably organisations whose function is horticultural research have failed to capitalise the intellectual property rights (IPR) available from the products of research. Hence in comparison with other science - led industries horticulture has been reliant upon publically funded research. The application of even relatively small amounts of public funding have, however, yielded very substantial gains for the horticultural industry and in turn helped create national wealth. Despite this high return on investment public funding for horticultural research has been diminished at a substantial rate in both Europe and North America. Government policies in the UK, for example over the past two decades have deliberately diminished the capacity for horticultural research. Such reductions in public funding have been justified on the cons in public funding have been justified on the criterion that since the research is of great value to the industry hence the industry must be prepared to pay for it. This criterion is naïve and potentially damaging where it is applied in the absence of detailed understanding of the processes of research, the manner by which innovation is applied and the structure of the industry which is asked to provide financial support.
This poster discusses the manner by which scientific knowledge
is gained and the processes by which it may be translated into
industrial practice with particular reference to horticulture.
Taking this structured approach improves the effectiveness of
the translation of knowledge. As a result there is even greater
industrial efficiency which in turn accelerates wealth creation,
increases employment and ensures that resources are used to maximum
benefit for the individual entrepreneur and more generally for
the community.
The Structure of the Research Process
Research may be codified into four main forms (as defined by Frascati).
These are not insulated and rigid compartments since there is
considerable interaction between them. They are valuable in defining
why research is undertaken in a particular manner and for the
development of criteria by which its success or failure may begin
to be measured.
Basic: 'experimental or theoretical work undertaken to
acic: 'experimental or theoretical work undertaken to
acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena
or facts, without any particular application or use in view';
Strategic: 'work which is undertaken to acquire new knowledge
in a subject area in which practical application seems feasible,
but which has not yet advanced to a stage where the eventual application
can be clearly specified';
Applied: 'research undertaken to acquire new knowledge
but primarily directed towards practical aims and objectives';
Experimental Development: 'systematic work drawing on existing
knowledge gained from research and practical experience that is
directed towards producing new products or processing or to improve
substantially those that are already in use'.
Research: Linear or Circular?
Defining research through the Frascati categories brings its own
dangers in that the process is seen as being strictly linear,
progressing from 'basic' to 'experimental development'. This damaging
assumption held prominence in the UK during the 1980's with disastrous
consequences for horticulture in particular. Since horticulture
rapidly absorbs scientific innovation there has been a traditionally
close relationship between the investigator and the entrepreneur.
Hence by applying the conception that Experimental Development
should always be financed by the entrepreneur and driment
should always be financed by the entrepreneur and driven by the
profit motive, logic deemed that all such research (termed 'Near
- Market') should be funded by industry. The damaging results
of the unstructured application of this conception, largely driven
by political motivations, were eventually appreciated by its author
(Fairclough, 1992). Regrettably recantation came too late to save
large proportions of horticultural research within the UK.
Examples of the benefits derived from circular research paths
Ample examples exist of research knowledge flowing from 'Basic'
to 'Experimental Development' for the benefit of horticulture.
For example, the discovery of genes for resistance to Bremia
lactucae (lettuce downy mildew) in Lactuca serriola
in the 1920's (Crute & Dixon, 1981) which required the development
of recent integrative technologies for their application (Crute,
1991).
Similarly horticultural research progress contains many examples of simple field observations by practitioners (Near - Market) which have eventually provided basic scientific knowledge. An example might be the recognition that sporulation in some foliage pathogens is triggered by the presence of secondary organisms (Williams, 1981). Unravelling the mechanics of recognition provides details of the genetic control of protein biosynthesis (Chen et al, 1994). In turn this knowledge holds out the prospect for the fourn this knowledge holds out the prospect for the formulation of novel classes of environmentally benign fungicides.
Research in horticulture is a closely interwoven series of cyclic
events which demand intimate associations between the investigators
and the entrepreneurs. Knowledge flows between both groups and
is not in the exclusive domain of one individual or one organisation.
Unforeseen and unforeseeable spin - offs develop at each stage
in the research cycle between 'Basic' and 'Experimental Development'
and back again.
Characteristics of Research and Entrepreneurship in Horticulture
Research
Industry
Horticulture - An Integrator of Knowledge
Horticulture offers one of the clearest examples of a discipline that integrates knowledge across the spectrum of sciences (quantitative to qualitative) and between investigators and entrepreneurs. This characteristic is valuable to the discipline itself. Additionally, it is becoming appreciated that an understanding how the process develops would permit wider application for the benefit of other disciplines and industries. Knowledge in horticulture is able to move quickly and with great effect around the 'system'. There is a 'team - effect' that permits this movement with little or no barriers between the players. The 'team' is composed obarriers between the players. The 'team' is composed of scientists, entrepreneurs and managers who interact on an equal basis each consciously gaining from the other. This process is aided by, the relatively small numbers of individuals involved, a sharing of similar educational backgrounds and close professional interests.
Developing analogous processes for other industries would be doomed
to dismal failure if they were imposed as a form of centralised
public planning. It is only possible to provide environments which
encourage interactions. This is best achieved through the educational
system following careful analysis and guidance.
Exploiting the 'Team' for Horticulture
Horticultural research benefits greatly from short time intervals and / or distances between the investigator and the entrepreneur. The ability of one player to communicate quickly with the other, albeit electronically and across continents, is of immeasurable benefit to both and ultimately to the development of new knowledge and its exploitation. Such movements are most effective where team spirit (personal relationships) have been fostered. In this situation 'Market - Led' (or Market - Stimulated) research can provide some of what the industry needs (or thinks it needs). There is, however, a significant danger that such research will be targeted at very short - term objectives (as has been the case in the UK with the Horticultural Deas been the case in the UK with the Horticultural Development Council). This can only be avoided by permitting the investigator (or research institution) to formulate studies which delve into basic scientific principles that underlie short - term studies.
In this manner horticultural research can formulate a matrix which
supports current industrial needs and makes provision for future
demands. To some extent mechanisms whereby this might be achieved
are being explored in a wider context through the UK Foresight
Programme (Anon, 1998).
References
Anon, (1998). Foresight: Consultation on the Next Round of the Foresight Programme, Office of Science & Technology, Department of Trade & Industry; Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London pp16.
Chen, Z., Malamy, J., Henning, J., Conrath, U., Sanchez - Casa, P., Ricigliano, J., Silva, H. & Klessig, D.F. (1994). The salicylic acid signal for activation of plant defenses is mediated by active oxygen species. pages 349 - 354, Advances in Molecular Genetics of Plant - Microbe Interactions (Editors: M. J. Daniels, J. A. Downie & A. E. Osbourn) Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Crute, I R (1991). Multi - component approaches to disease control in vegetables and fruit. pages 77 - 89, Horticultural Exploitation of Recent Biological Developments, published by the Institute of Horticulture and the Institute of Biology, Loe Institute of Horticulture and the Institute of Biology, London.
Crute, I R & Dixon, G R. (1981). Downy mildew diseases caused by the genus Bremia Regel. pages 423 - 460. The Downy Mildews (Editor: D M Spencer), Academic Press, London.
Dixon, G R (1994). Research cuts and crop protection. The Horticulturist, 3 (2), 2 - 10.
Fairclough, J (1992). Reshaping science: sizzling start for the white heat. The Times Higher Education Supplement. No 1042, October 23, p 17.
Williams, P. H. (1981). Screening Crucifers for Multiple Disease
Resistance. Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, USA, 168pp.